Chapter One

[Link] of
Research
1. Meaning and nature of Social inquiry
Social Inquiry refers to the search for an
answer for different human and natural
experiences; since ancient time human
being has been searching for
explanations for natural phenomena like
drought, earth quack, disease, famine,
flood, the fluctuation of light and
darkness as well as the nature of life and
death.
 Con…
The journey of human knowledge from the
first sedentary society through the
emergence of religion up to the modern
Era is a journey of social inquiry from the
darkest era to the era of science
technology.
Thus, social inquiry is to be understood as
the phenomenological development of the
method of knowing human and natural
experiences.
 1.1. Sources of Social Inquiry

Based on the justification for the acceptability of a

given mode of inquiry social inquiry can be
categorized in to four major typologies.
Time-Based Knowing: Traditional Knowledge
Credential-Based Knowing: Authoritative
Knowledge
More Risky Knowledge Sources: Common Sense
and Intuition
Science as a Trustworthy Way of Knowing
 [Link]-Based Knowing: Traditional Knowledge

 K/dge accumulated and experience tested through cross-

generational inheritance is one source of inquiry and
knowledge.
 Every society passes through this source of k/dge that serves as
the bases for the emergence and advancement of scientific
k/dge.
 Moreover, some time-based k/dge among others patriarchy,
female genital mutilation, culture of violence and religious
oppression etc, are to be considered to Harmful Traditional
Practices which require change.
 The careful and selective application of this source of inquiry is
of practical and theoretical development of knowledge.
Therefore, with proper caution, it can be considered as viable
source of scientific inquiry.
 1.1.2. Credential-Based Knowing:
Authoritative Knowledge
 It is based on proven professional competence or
accredited individuals who assumed to be dependable
source of scientific research.
 Certification of life and death by medical doctors,
forensic (crime investigator) doctors, engineers and
educators as well as various experts is few among
instances of authoritative knowledge.
 Accredited sources are unbiased, rational and
accountable to make personalized and unverified
information.
 While not immune from abuse and biases.
1.1.3 More Risky Knowledge Sources: Common
Sense and Intuition
It is based on commonsense and intuition that
lacks both rational verification and time based
knowledge.
Most people depend on this source of knowledge
in their day to day personal life, social and
institutional affairs.
Pseudo-believes, magic tricks, fortune telling,
interpretation of bad and good omens are few
among numerous examples of this category of
sources of inquiry.
it is most risky and unreliable source of scientific
inquiry.
 1.2. Meaning and characteristics of research
The term “Research” consists of two words:
Research = Re + Search
“Re” means again and again and “Search”
means to find out something, the following is the
process: Observes Collection of data
Personn Phenomena Conclusion io ns

Again and again Analysis of data

 Con…
The Word ‘Research’ is comprises of two
words = Re and search.
It means to search again.
So research means a systematic
investigation or activity to gain new
knowledge of the already existing facts.
Research is an intellectual activity.
It is responsible for bringing to light new
knowledge.
 Con…
 It is also responsible for correcting the present
mistakes, removing existing misconceptions
and adding new learning to the existing fund
of knowledge.
 Research is also considered as the application
of scientific method in solving the problems.
 It is a systematic, formal and intensive
process of carrying on the scientific method of
analysis.
 There are many ways of obtaining knowledge.
 Con…
Research is the systematic process of collecting
and analyzing information to increase our
understanding of the phenomenon under study.
Research in common parlance refers to a search
for knowledge.
 Once can also define research as
a scientific and systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic.
In fact, research is an art of scientific
investigation.
 Research defined as:
1. Redman and Mory define research as a
“systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”
2. Some people consider research as a movement,
a movement from the known to the unknown.
 It is actually a voyage of discovery.
 1.2.1 Characteristics of Scientific Research
 Research can be considered as a chain of
reasoning beginning at problem formulation
proceeding through investigation and ending
with findings.
 Research is aimed at solving problem.
 Conducting research becomes necessary when;
There is no data to investigate on a research
problem
There may be some data but in sufficient
There may be some data but incorrect and less
reliable.
 Con….
 A good research adds new knowledge on the
already available knowledge and it enables
to make generalizations.
Research has to fill gap in the existing
knowledge.
 It is a rigorous process whereby the
procedures followed to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate and
justified.
 It is a systematic process whereby the
procedures used to make an investigation
should follow a certain logical sequence.
 Con…

 It is valid and verifiable in that whatever is

concluded based on one's own findings
 It is empirical in that research is based on
observable experience and findings
 Objectivity and un-biasdness: research
requires precise observation and description of
observed facts.
A purpose of social Science research serves
many purposes.
 Con…
 Three of the most common and useful purposes,
however, are:
 Description represents efforts exerted to give
pictorial account of the phenomenon being studied.
 Explanation, the researcher exploring the
reasons/the causes of the occurrence of certain
behavior or event.
 Exploration- the science or the are of invetigation
 Many studies can and often do have more than one
of these purposes, however each have different
implications for other aspects of research design.
 [Link] approaches
and paradigms in Social science research

We have different methodological and

philosophical approach in conducting social
science research.
These approaches have their own assumptions on
how to study human behavior.
 The positivist approach is originated from the
physical sciences and mainly emphasizes
numerical analysis to study social behavior,
There are also the interpretive and critical
approach holding their own philosophical
assumptions.
 A. Positivist approach
Its origin from the physical sciences and later
extended in to the social sciences.
the French scholar Augusta Comte (1789-1857) and
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) encouraged the use of
positivist approach in social science research to
study social behavior.
The main intent of a positivist approach is that social
sciences should adopt the methods used in physical
sciences to study social behavior.
This approach requires social researchers to treat
and analyze social facts objectively as the physical
scientists treat numbers and data.
 Con…
 For this approach social facts have their own
patterns or regularities in societies and they can
be studied by means of numbers and statistics.
 For instance the rate at which rape is committed,
the rate at which people become addicted to
drugs, rate of suicide committed etc…
 Therefore, numbers and the tools that are used
to analyze them got much attention in this
approach.
 Con…
For positivists science refers to “an
objective, logical and systematic method of
analysis of phenomena, devised to permit
the accumulation or reliable knowledge.”
Therefore, an objective approach is
necessary to minimize bias, to promote
impersonality and opinions.
Subjective interpretation of social realities
and individual perceptions are of little value
to positivists.
 Con…
For them research should be value free.
Researchers should avoid their personal
values and perceptions
 Positivists mainly use experiments, surveys
and secondary data as a research design and
they give much place to numerical analysis.
 Criticisms:

a. Purely value free research is unattainable

researchers can not totally avoid their expectations
and biases to influence the research outcomes.
b. The positivists neglect the fact that individuals
may perceive similar things in different way, since
they recommend objective interpretation of social
realities.
 But the social world can be alternatively
explored from its subjective dimension.
 B. The interpretive approach

Emphasizes on the importance of subjective

interpretation that individuals give to their action
and to the actions and reactions of others.
This approach recommends researchers to imagine
how individuals perceive social actions, how do they
feel? What meaning do they attach to particular
events? etc…
Therefore, their emphasis is not on the objective
study of social patterns but on how individuals
perceive social actions.
For this approach values are relative or subjective
based on specific social experiences and
socialization.
 Con…
The definition that we give to social actions
varies across societies and time, which means
we cannot give objective judgments.
Researchers in this approach mainly rely on
field studies like participant observation, in
depth interviews and case studies.
They focus on few cases and their detailed
description.
After conducting research results are
communicated through verbal description
rather than numerical analysis.
 Critics:
 Some scholars argue that, all values could not
be equally valid as argued by the interpretive
approach.
 Their emphasis on specific cases and field
studies.
 Since they emphasize on individual cases they
could not analyze social patterns.
 For instance, we can not generalize on
interactions among social groups by studying
individuals.
 Emphasis on individual cases leads to knowing
 C. The critical approach

• For these theorists certain values are correct while

others are not.
• They also believe that human beings are composed of
groups where by powerful groups impose their
interests over less powerful one.
• For instance “male’s dominance over females”.
• They argue that, human interactions are characterized
by conflicts.
• Based on this they recommend that research out
comes by social scientists should result in bringing
social justice and their research directed more towards
social problems.
 Con…
• The fundamental goal of this approach therefore, is
to bring about social justice and equality.
• In their methodology since they are interested in
inter group interactions they usually use historical
materials, pay particular attention to comparative
studies and analyses of secondary data.
• Research outcomes and explanations are judged as
valid if they could improve life condition of
humanity and encourage social justice and equality.
• This implies that this approach has strong practical
orientation.
 Con…
• ? Dear students which approach is correct and
results in good research outcome based on
your own judgment?
• We cannot say that one of these approaches is
best and leads to best research outcome.
• Each approach plays its own role to increase
our understanding of human behavior.
• We cannot disregard or reject any of them for
each is valuable in adding more knowledge to
us about human behavior.
 Con…
 It uses tools like an in depth interview, participant
observation or an in depth analysis of individual
case.
 Data analysis do not require statistical procedures or
in depth mathematical analysis.
 Rather findings are typically expressed by quoting
interviews from respondents or describing what the
researcher experienced during field observation.
 More subjectivity may be reflected in qualitative
research since the judgment of the researcher
matters in collecting and analyzing data with less
application of structured instruments and
mathematical methods.
 Con…
 Often the distinction between qualitative
and quantitative research is framed in
terms of using words (qualitative)
 rather than numbers (quantitative), or
using closed-ended questions
(quantitative hypotheses)
 rather than open-ended questions
(qualitative interview questions).
 ?Dear students, which type of research ensures good research out come?

• Qualitative or quantitative?
• Both qualitative and quantitative researches
have their own advantages and disadvantages.
• It is recommended that nobody has to simply
attach to one of these methods.
• Since neither are superior to the other.
• Even many studies require combining both
methods.
• Generally the research problem should
determine whether the study is carried out by
quantitative or qualitative methods.
Table 1 below shows a summary of major differences
between quantitative and qualitative approaches to research
Orientation Quantitative Qualitative
Assumption
A single reality, i.e., can be
about Multiple realities
measured by an instrument.
the world
Establish relationships Understanding a social situation
Research purpose
between measured variables from participants’ perspectives
- Flexible, changing strategies;
- Procedures are established
- design emerges as data are
Research before study begins;
collected;
methods - a hypothesis is formulated
- a hypothesis is not needed to
and processes before research can begin;
begin research;
- deductive in nature.
- inductive in nature.
The researcher is ideally an
objective observer who The researcher participates and
Researcher’s role neither participates in nor becomes immersed in the
influences what is being research/social setting.
studied.
Universal context-free Detailed context-based
Generalisability
generalizations generalizations
 1.8. Types of Research Approaches

The knowledge claims, the strategies, and

the method all contribute to a research
approach that tends to be more
quantitative, qualitative or mixed.
Research is often broken down into three
different approaches: Namely
• Quantitative research approach,
• Qualitative research approach and
• mixed research approach.
 A. A quantitative approach
 is one in which the investigatory primarily uses
postpositive claims for developing knowledge (i.e.,
• cause and effect thinking,
• reduction to specific variables and hypotheses and
• questions, use of measurement and observation,
and the test of theories),
• employs strategies of inquiry such as experiments
and surveys, and
• collect data on predetermined instruments that
yield statistics data.
 B. A Qualitative approach

 is one in which the inquirer often makes

knowledge claims based primarily on
constructivist perspectives (i.e.,
• the multiple meanings of individual
experiences meanings socially and
historically constructed, with an intent of
developing a theory or pattern) or
• advocacy/participatory perspectives (i.e.,
political, issue-oriented, collaborative, or
change oriented) or both.
 Con…
• It also uses strategies of inquiry
such as narratives,
phenomenologies, ethnographies,
grounded theory studies, or case
studies.
• The researcher collects open-
ended, emerging data with the
primary intent of developing
themes from the data.
 C. A mixed approach

is an approach to inquiry that combines or

associates both qualitative and quantitative
forms.
It involves philosophical assumptions, the use of
qualitative and quantitative approaches, and the
mixing of both approaches in a study.
Thus, it is more than simply collecting and
analyzing both kinds of data;
 It also involves the use of both approaches in
tandem so that the overall strength of a study is
greater than either qualitative or quantitative
research.
 Con….
 Mixed method research also employs
strategies of inquiry that involve collecting
data either simultaneously or sequentially to
best understand research problem.
 The data collection also involves gathering
both numeric information (e.g., on
instruments) as well as text information (e.g.,
on interviews) so that the final database
represents both quantitative and qualitative
information.
 1.9. The quantitative Research Process

The quantitative research design process

typically involves several key steps to ensure
a systematic and rigorous approach to data
collection and analysis.
While the specific steps may vary depending
on the research context,
here are the key stages commonly involved
in quantitative research design:
 1. Identify the Research Problem

Clearly identifying a research topic,

problem or objective is the first step in
any study.
Determine the research question(s) and
objectives that you want to address
through your quantitative research study.
Ensure that your research question is
specific, measurable, and aligned with
your research goals.
 2. Review Literature

Reviewing related literature provides a great deal

of guidance in quantitative research studies.
Learning what others have done previously -
regarding research design, sampling,
instrumentation, data collection procedures, and
data analysis.
Conduct a comprehensive review of existing
literature helps the researcher understand the
current state of knowledge, identify gaps in the
literature, and inform your research design.
It also helps in selecting appropriate variables and
developing hypotheses.
 3. Determine Research Design

 Based on your research question and objectives-

research design or a research plan is developed.
 Included in the plan are strategies for selecting a
sample of participants, an appropriate research
design based on the nature of the research
questions or hypotheses, and
 strategies for data collection (including
procedures, instrumentation, informed consent
forms, and a realistic time frame) and data
analysis.
 Consider factors such as feasibility, ethical
considerations, and resources available.
 4. Define Variables and Hypotheses
Identify the variables that are pertinent
to your research question.
 Clearly define each variable and its
operational definitions (how they will
be measured or observed).
Develop hypotheses that state the
expected relationships between
variables based on existing theories or
prior research.
 5. Determine Sampling Strategy

 Define the target population for your

study and determine the sampling
strategy.
 Decide on the sample size and the
sampling method (e.g., random sampling,
stratified sampling, convenience sampling).
 Ensure that your sample is representative
of the population you want to generalize
your findings to.
 6. Select Data Collection Methods

Choose the appropriate data collection

methods to gather data
This can include surveys, experiments,
observations, or secondary data analysis.
Develop or select validated instruments
(e.g., questionnaires, scales) for data
collection.
Perform a pilot test on the instruments
to ensure their reliability and validity.
 7. Collect Data
Data collection in a quantitative study tends
not to take a great deal of time, depending on
the particular design.
Data are typically collected directly from
participants through the use of instruments,
such as surveys, checklists, tests, and other
tools that will generate numerical data.
Conducting experiments, observe participants,
or extract data from existing sources.
Consider ethical considerations and obtain
necessary permissions or approvals.
 8. Analyze Data

• Quantitative data are analyzed statistically,

focusing on numerical descriptions,
comparisons of groups.
• Depending on your research design and data
characteristics, apply descriptive statistics
(e.g., means, frequencies) and inferential
statistics (e.g., t-tests, ANOVA, regression
analysis) to analyze relationships, test
hypotheses, and draw conclusions.
• Use statistical software for efficient and
accurate analysis.
 9. Interpret Results

 Conclusions are drawn directly from the

interpretation of results from the statistical
analysis.
 The conclusions, as well as the
recommendations for practice and future
research, are typically connected back to the
body of literature.
 Consider the limitations of your study and
address any unexpected or contradictory
results.
 10. Communicate/Report Findings

 The final step in conducting a quantitative

research study is to prepare the final research
report.
 This report summarizes all aspects of the study;
research process, findings, and conclusions.
 The researcher presents the results in a clear
and understandable manner using appropriate
visualizations (e.g., tables, graphs).
 Consider disseminating your findings through
academic publications, conferences, or other
appropriate channels.
 1.6. Research Design in Quantitative Research

What is research design?

Research design is ’a program that guides
the investigator in the process of collecting,
analyzing and interpreting observations
(data).
 It is a logical model of proof that allows
the researcher to draw inferences concerning
causal relation among variables.”
Research design is similar to an
architectural outline.
 Con…

It is also defined as “a blue print or detailed plan

for how a research study is to be completed-
operationalizing variables.’’
Research design can be thought of as the logic or
master plan of a research that throws light on how
the study is to be conducted.
It shows how all of the major parts of the research
study-the samples or groups, measures, treatments
or programs, etc-work together in an attempt to
address the research questions.
 Con…

Generally a research design sets the structure and

strategy of investigation to answer the research
questions validly, objectively, accurately and
economically by facilitating conditions for the
collection and analysis of data.
The research design has two basic functions.
It helps to identify and conceptualize the
procedures.
It helps to ensure as to whether the procedures
set are objective, accurate and reliable to obtain
answers to the research questions.
 There are four main types of Quantitative research Design:

2.1 Descriptive Design

 It is a type of research design that aims to
systematically obtain information to
describe a phenomenon, situation, or
population.
 It helps answer the what, when, where, and
how questions regarding the research
problem rather than the why.
 A researcher can conduct this research using
various methodologies.
 Con…
 It predominantly employs quantitative
data, although qualitative data is
sometimes used for descriptive
purposes.
 In the descriptive research method, the
researcher does not control or
manipulate any variables.
 Instead, the variables are only
identified, observed, and measured.
 Con…
 The purpose of descriptive research
design is to describe, and interpret, the
current status of individuals, settings,
conditions, or events.
 Two commonly used quantitative, non-
experimental, descriptive research
designs are
1. observational research and
2. survey research.
 Survey Research

 Survey research involves collecting data through

questionnaires or interviews.
 Surveys allow researchers to gather data on
various settings, such as online surveys or face-
to-face interviews.
 This design is particularly useful for studying
attitudes, opinions, and behaviors within a
population.
 The central purpose of survey research is to
describe characteristics of a group or population.
 It is primarily a quantitative research technique.
 

Observational Research Design:

• Observational design involves systematically

observing and recording behavior, events, or
phenomena in natural settings.
• Researchers can use structured or unstructured
quantitative observation methods, depending on the
research objectives.
• Quantitative data can be collected by counting the
frequency of specific behaviors or by using coding
systems to categorize and analyze observed data.
• Quantitative observational studies typically focus on
a particular aspect of behavior that can be
quantified through some measure.
 2.2. Correlational Design

o The correlational design investigates the

association b/n two or more variables
without engaging in their manipulation.
o Researchers measure variables and
determine the degree and direction of their
association using statistical techniques such
as correlation analysis.
o However, correlational research cannot
establish causality, only the strength and
direction of the relationship.
 Con…
• For example, whether there is re/ship b/n sex and choice of
field of study;
• whether criminal behavior is related to social class
background; or
• whether an association exists b/n the number of years
spent in full-time education and subsequent annual income.
• In this case we conduct correlational study - where
researchers measure a number of variables for each
participant, with the aim of studying the associations among
these variables.
• The purpose of correlational design is not to establish
cause-effect re/ship among variables but to determine
whether the variables under study have some kind of
association or not.
 2.3. Causal-Comparative/Quasi-Experimental Design

• Quasi-experimental design exhibits similarities to

experimental design, yet it lacks the random
assignment of participants to groups.
• The researcher takes advantage of naturally
occurring groups or pre-existing conditions to
compare the effects of an independent variable
on a dependent variable.
• While it doesn’t establish causality as strongly as
experimental design, it can still provide valuable
insights.
 2.4. Experimental Research Design
o It involves comparing two groups on one
outcome measure to test some hypothesis
regarding causation.
o The key element in true experimental
research is scientific control and the ability
to rule out alternative explanations.
o An experimenter interferes with the natural
course of events, in order to construct a
situation in which competing theories can
be tested.
 Con…

o It allows the researchers to establish cause-

and-effect re/ships by controlling for
confounding factors.
o the researcher intentionally manipulates one
variable to measure its effect on the other.
• There are several experimental designs.
• We can classify experimental designs into two
broad categories, viz., informal experimental
designs and formal experimental designs.
 Con…
• Informal experimental designs are
those designs that normally use a less
sophisticated form of analysis based
on differences in magnitudes, whereas
• formal experimental designs offer
relatively more control and use
precise statistical procedures for
analysis.
END!
 Unit Two
2. Measurements,
Surveys and
Sampling
Techniques
 2.1 Definition and Functions
• Measurement is assigning numbers to
objects or events according to rules.
• Measurement, simply speaking, is the
assignment of numerals or other
symbols or signs
• (male, female, occupational
categories, for example) to objects or
events according to a set of operational
rules.
 Con…

• Measurement always refers to some

property of the object or event and
not the object or event by itself.
• The purpose is to have information in
a form in which variables can be
related to each other.
 2.2 Types of Variables & Measurement
Scales
• A variable is a characteristic of a person,
object or phenomena which is being
investigated.
• It is a characteristic or attribute that can
assume different values.
• Variables can be classified by how they are
categorized, counted, or measured.
• For example, - data be organized into specific
categories, such as area of residence (rural,
suburban, or urban).
 Con…
o Examples of common variables include
gender, income, socio-economic class,
productivity, unemployment, education, age,
erosion, conservation, terracing, etc.
o Other examples of variables are, Weights in
kg., Monthly income (expressed in birr) and
Number of children (e. g. 1,2,3 …)
o Some variables are expressed in numbers, we
call them numerical variables.
 Con…
• Some variables may also be expressed in
categories we call the categorical variables.
• For example, the variable sex has two distinct
categories (groups) as male and female, Race
white and black,
 In general variables are divided into;
1. Dichotomous variable - (absent or present,
yes or no)
2. Polyatomic variables - variables that have
variety of values. E.g. religion affiliation,
political affiliation
 Con…
 Broadly speaking, variables are divided into;
dependent and Independent Variables
1. Dependent Variable - The Variable that is
used to describe or measure the problem
under study.
• It refers the consequent of the phenomena.
2. Independent variable – refers the variables
that are used to describe or measure the factors
that are assumed to cause or at least influence
the dependent variable.
 Con…
• Ex. Smoking and lung cancer; bad farming
methods and soil erosion; drought and urban
migration, etc.
• Identify the dependent and independent
variables?
 Variables also classified as Qualitative
variables and Quantitative variables.
• A. Qualitative variables- are variables that can
be placed in distinct category according to
some characteristics.
 Con…
• Qualitative variables are nonnumeric and
cannot be measured or counted.
• Example: - religion, gender, race, beauty,
religion, degree of pain, place of birth, ethnic
group, type of drug, stages of breast cancer
(I, II, III, or IV), degree of pain(minimal,
moderate, severe or unbearable).
 B. Quantitative variables:
• Quantitative variables are that can be
quantified or can have numerical values and
it can be measured and counting.
 Con…
• Example: weight, height, age, production,
blood pressure, heart beat, number of
patients on a given hospital etc.
• A quantitative variable/numerical variable -
can be of two types (discrete or continuous).
I. Discrete variables: are variables which can
assume only a specific number of values.
 Discrete variables are a result of counting and
values are usually whole numbers.
 Con…
• Example: the number of items purchased, the
number of HIV patient indifferent year,
number of students in Debre Markos
University, number of chairs, number of
accidents in a given year, number of defective
items in a given production process, number
of employees, number of family members....
• Discrete – numbers with whole numbers
0,1,2,3 … Give another example?
 Continuous variable:

• Continuous variables are variables that can

have any value with in an interval.
• The values of continuous variables are
obtained by measurement.
• Example: weight, height, blood pressure,
age, expenditure, productions, rainfall
generally any measurable quantity etc.
• Continuous variables (2.5 cm. 2.55 cm,
2.52 3 Cm, etc) Give example?
 Con…
• Based upon the aforementioned of
classification of variables -i.e., how
variables are categorized, counted, or
measured-uses measurement scales can
be grouped in to four common types of
scales are used:
1. nominal,
2. ordinal,
3. interval, and
4. ratio.
 2.2.1Nominal Measurement

The nominal level of measurement is

characterized by data that consist of
names, labels, or categories only.
Nominal scale data cannot be arranged
in an ordering scheme.
The arithmetic operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division
are not performed for nominal data.
 Con…
 In this scale one different from the other, they
are not interchangeable and ranking,
ordering, mathematical comparisons (<,>, =)
is impossible.
 Example: eye color: (brown, black, others),
sex: (male, female), Political party preference
(Republican, Democrat, or Others), Marital
status: (married, single, widow, divorce).
 The nominal level of measurement classifies
data into mutually exclusive (no overlapping)
categories.
 2.2.2 Ordinal Measurement

Ordinal Scales are measurement systems that

possess the property of order.
 Data measured at this level can be placed into
categories, and these categories can be
ordered, or ranked.
Thus nominal and ordinal scales are
sometimes collectively called categorical
scales.
However, an ordinal scale provides additional
information.
 Con…
An ordinal scale of measurement, in
addition to the function of classification,
allows cases to be ordered or ranked by
degree according to measurements of the
variable.
Arithmetic operations (+, -,*, ÷) are not
applicable but relational operations (<, >)
are applicable.
Example: Letter grading (A, B, C, D, F), rating
scales (excellent, very good, good), etc.
 2.2.3 Interval Measurement

 This level of measurement shares all the

characteristics nominal and ordinal scale.
 But it is a more powerful level of
measurement than ranking (ordinal scale).
 It is termed as ordinal data but have equal
interval.
 It is a scale in which an increase from one
level to the next always reflects the same
increase in equality.
 Con…
 Increasing/decreasing in equal
increments.
 A > B > C where the distance between A
and B is the same as between B and C.
 A good example of an interval variable is
grade point average.
 The difference b/n 2.50 and 3.00 is
considered to be the same mathematical
difference as that b/n 3.00 and 3.50.
 Con…
 The mathematical distance b/n 24 and 26 is the
same as the mathematical distance b/n a 26 and a
28.
 Temperature is another example of interval
measurement, since there is a meaningful
difference of 1F b/n each unit, such as 72F and
73F.
 One property is lacking in the interval scale: There
is no true zero.
 For example, IQ tests do not measure people who
have no intelligence.
 For temperature, 0 F does not mean no heat at all.
 2.2.4 Ratio Measurement

 It shares all the characteristics of interval scale.

 But their difference is that we can apply all the
four mathematical rules under ratio scales.
 It is the highest level of measurement.
 Measure height, weight, area, and number of
phone calls received.
 Measure contains an absolute zero.
 If A = 2B, then B actually possesses half the
quantity as A (and A contains two times the
quantity as B).
 Con…
Let us take an example, if Plot A produce an
average of 40 pieces of fruit and Plot B
produce an average of 20 pieces of fruit, we
could claim that Plot A produced two times
as many pieces of fruit as Plot B (a ratio of
2:1 ).
Examples include physical measurements;
agricultural production measures, etc
Therefore, Ratio data, as the name implies,
allow numerical values to be placed in ratios.
 2.2.5 Likert Scale of Measurement

 A very popular type of scale in the social

sciences is the Likert scale.
 A Likert scale is a type of interval scale which
participants indicate their degree of
agreement with a stated attitude.
 An example would be: “the quality of
education in Ethiopia is declining.
 The Likert - scale response alternatives could
be: strongly agree (1), agree (2), neutral (3),
disagree (4), and strongly disagree (5).
 2.3 Sampling and Sampling Distribution
Population/Universe
• A population consists of all subjects (human or
otherwise) that are being studied.
• In statistics, the term population/universe is
used in a different sense from its literary
sense.
• A population is any entire collection of people,
animals, plants or things from which we may
select sample data.
 Con…
• It is the entire group we are interested in,
which we wish to describe or draw
conclusions about.
• For instance, if you want to study the food
security status of farm households in a
woreda having 1200 farm households, you
may communicate only 8% of the total which
is only 96.
• Here the 1200 farm households in the woreda
are said to be population and the 96 ones are
your samples.
 Definitions of some terms
• Sample: It is a subset of the population, selected
using some sampling technique in such a way
that they represent the population.
• Sampling: The process or method of sample
selection from the population.
• Sample size: The number of elements or
observation to be included in the sample.
• Census: Complete enumeration or observation
of the elements of the population.
• Or it is the collection of data from every element
in a population.
 Con…

• Parameter: Characteristic or measure

obtained from a population.
• Statistic: Characteristic or measure
obtained from a sample.
• Variable: It is an item of interest that
can take on many different numerical
values.
 Samples

• A sample is a group of subjects selected from a

population.
• It is a group of items selected from a larger
group (the population/universe) for any
statistical analysis.
• The sample is the utmost perfect
representative of the general population.
• If the subjects of a sample are properly
selected, most of the time they should possess
the same or similar characteristics as the
subjects in the population.
 2.3.1 Why sampling?

• A sample is generally selected for study

because the population may be too large to
study in its entirety; or it may be too costly
and time consuming to deal with each and
every population.
• It is not possible to use the entire population
for a statistical study; therefore, researchers
use samples.
• By studying the sample it is hoped to draw
valid conclusions about the larger group.
 Con…
• However, the information obtained
from a statistical sample is said to be
biased if the results from the sample
of a population are radically different
from the results of a census of the
population.
• Also, a sample is said to be biased if it
does not represent the population
from which it has been selected.
 2.3.2 Errors in Sampling

• A researcher may commit at least two types of

errors during sampling.
• S/he should, therefore, take great care at the
sampling stage of her/his research so as to
avoid committing sampling errors or not to
draw wrong samples which may lead to
wrong conclusions.
• The two major errors in sampling are known
as sampling error and non-sampling
(measurement) error.
 Sampling Error

• Sampling errors may happen simply because of

sampling itself or due to certain biasness towards
certain parameters.
• There are two basic causes of sampling error.
• One is the error that occurs just because of chance.
• Some literature calls this bad chance.
• This may result in untypical choices.
• Unusual units (extremely small or large units) in a
population do exist and there is always a possibility
that an abnormally large or small number of them
will be chosen.
 Con…
• For example, for the data for your BA Thesis at woreda
level you may unluckily select all the well-to-do farm
households in the woreda in your set of sample.
• You may select your samples randomly but, all the rich
households in the whole population, which have the
highest crop yield per year, may be selected making the
sample average by far higher than what it should be.
• The second cause of sampling error is sampling bias.
• Sampling bias is a tendency to favor the selection of
units/items that have particular characteristics.
• Sampling bias is usually the result of a poor sampling
plan.
• The most notable is the bias of non response when
for some reason some units have no chance of
appearing in the sample.
• A means of selecting the units of analysis must be
designed to avoid the most obvious forms of bias.
• For example, when you would like to know the
average income of the residents of a town, you may
decide to use mobile telephone numbers to select a
sample from the total population in a locality where
only the well-to-do social class households (in
Ethiopian case) own mobile telephones.
• You will then end up with high average income
which will lead to wrong conclusions in your
findings.
• Therefore, you must be very careful in selecting
your research samples free of any bias.
• Sampling error causes the discrepancy b/n
population parameters and statistic.
• The discrepancy generally decreases as the sample
size increases, and becomes negligible with
increasing sample size.
• Hence a sample of optimum size must be obtained
for a study.
Non-sampling error (Measurement error)
• The other main cause of unrepresentative samples
is what is known as non-sampling error.
• A non sampling error occurs when the data are
obtained erroneously or the sample is biased, i.e.,
non representative.
• This type of error can occur whether a census or a
sample is being used.
• Like sampling error, non-sampling error may either
be produced by participants in the statistical study
or be an innocent by product of the sampling plans
and procedures.
• The simplest example of non-sampling error is
an inaccurate instruments or poor
procedures.
• For example, in case of data of crop yield of
farm households in Ethiopia, if persons are
asked to state their annual production, they
may tell you in terms of traditional measuring
tools like qunna or enqib which may vary in
size from household to household or from
place to place, as a result of which the two
answers will not be of equal reliability.
 2.3.3 Sampling Techniques

• Sampling methods are classified into

probability or non-probability.
• In probability sampling, each member of the
population has a known non-zero probability
of being selected.
• Probability methods include random
sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified
sampling.
• In non-probability sampling, members are
selected from the population in some
nonrandom manner.
• These include convenience sampling,
judgment sampling, quota sampling, and
snowball sampling.
• The advantage of probability sampling is that
all the items in the set of population have the
chance to be selected.
 2.3.4 Probability sampling
 The statistician tries to make inferences from
samples to populations.
 Inferential statistics uses probability, i.e., the
chance of an event occurring.
 You may be familiar with the concepts of
probability through various forms of
gambling.
 If you play cards, dice, bingo, or lotteries, you
win or lose according to the laws of
probability.
 2.3.5 Methods of probability sampling

• To obtain samples that are unbiased -

i.e., that give each subject in the
population an equally likely chance of
being selected-statisticians use four
basic methods of sampling:
1. random,
2. systematic,
3. stratified, and
4. cluster sampling.
 1. Simple Random Sampling

o A random sample is a sample in which all

members of the population have an equal
chance of being selected.
o every member of the population has equal
and independent chance of being selected.
o The selection of one observation does not
affect the opportunity of other observations
to be selected.
o Each element of the sampling frame has an
equal probability of selection if the frame is
not subdivided or partitioned.
 Con…
o disadvantage - all members of the
population have to be available for
selection.
o Statisticians use a method of obtaining
numbers.
o They generate random numbers with a
computer or calculator.
o Random numbers were obtained from
tables.
o Some two-digit random numbers are
shown in Table 1.
 Con…
o To select a random sample of, say, 15 subjects
out of 85 subjects, it is necessary to number
each subject from 01 to 85.
o Then select a starting number by closing your
eyes and placing your finger on a number in the
table.
o It enables us to find a starting number at
random.
o In this case suppose your finger landed on the
number 12 in the second column. (It is the sixth
number down from the top.)
 Con…
o Then proceed downward until you have
selected 15 different numbers b/n 01 and 85.
o When you reach the bottom of the column,
go to the top of the next column.
o If you select a number greater than 85 or the
number 00 or a duplicate number, just omit
it.
o In our example, we will use the subjects
numbered 12, 27, 75, 62, 57, 13, 31, 06, 16,
49, 46, 71, 53, 41, and 02.
 2. Systematic Sampling

 A systematic sample is a sample obtained by

selecting every member of the population where
“K” is a counting number.
 It is also called an Kth item selection technique.
 After the required sample size has been
calculated, every Kth record is selected from a list
of population members.
 Selecting, say, every 10th name from the list of
students is called an every 10th sample, which is
an example of systematic sampling.
 Con…
 The first name chosen is not simply the first in
the list, but is chosen to be (say) the 10th,
where 10 is a random integer.
 Example: Let us assume that you want to
study certain characteristics of government
employees in Burie town.
 Let the total government employees in the
town be 2000 serially numbered from 1 to
2000 in alphabetical order.
 Firstly, you have to decide your sample size
based on the criteria you have read above.
 Con…
Let it be 100.
Divide the population (2000) by sample
size (100). i.e. 2000 divided by 100.
Volunteer sampling gives you 20 which
will provide the positions of sample
items; in every 20th item from the first
item identified randomly.
Now draw a random number from 1 to 20.
 Let number 13 is selected randomly and
select the accordingly.
 3. Stratified Random Sampling

• A stratified sample is a sample obtained by

dividing the population into subgroups or
strata according.
• There can be several subgroups.
• Then subjects are selected from each
subgroup.
• Samples within the strata should be randomly
selected.
• For example, suppose the president of a two-
year college wants to learn how students feel
about a certain issue.
 Con…
• Furthermore, the president wishes to see if
the opinions of first-year students differ from
those of second-year students.
• The president will randomly select students
from each subgroup to use in the sample.
• Example: Let us assume that you want to
study certain characteristics of urban
households in one of the towns in Ethiopia.
• Firstly, you can divide the whole urban
households into a number of homogeneous
groups called strata.
 Con…
• For example, they may be divided into
homogeneous groups according to sex of
household head, age, family income or any
other available information can be used.
• In fact, at this stage we need pre-documented
information about each household.
• Finally, from each homogeneous group
(stratum) you can select a required size of
sample households randomly and distribute
your questionnaire or administer an interview.
 4. Cluster or Area Sampling

o Cluster sampling is an example of two-stage

sampling or multistage sampling:
o in the first stage sample of cluster/s is/are chosen
while in the second stage sample/s of respondent/s
within those areas is/are selected.
o A cluster sample is obtained by dividing the
population into sections or clusters and then
selecting one or more clusters and using all
members in the cluster(s) as the members of the
sample.
• Here, the population is divided into groups or
clusters by some means such as geographic area or
schools in a large school district.
 Con…
o Then the researcher randomly selects some of
these clusters and uses all members of the
selected clusters as the subjects of the samples.
o Suppose a researcher wishes to survey apartment
dwellers in a large city.
o If there are 10 apartment buildings in the city, the
researcher can select at random 2 buildings from
the 10 and interview all the residents of these
buildings.
o Cluster sampling is used when the population is
large or when it involves subjects residing in a
large geographic area.
Con…
 2.3.6 Sample Size and Its Determination

• In sampling analysis the most ticklish question

is: What should be the size of the sample or
how large or small should be ‘n’?
• If the sample size (‘n’) is too small, it may not
serve to achieve the objectives and if it is too
large, we may incur huge cost and waste
resources.
• As a general rule, one can say that the sample
must be of an optimum size i.e., it should
neither be excessively large nor too small.
 Con…
• Technically, the sample size should be
large enough to give a confidence
interval of desired width and
• as such the size of the sample must be
chosen by some logical process.
• Size of the sample should be determined
by a researcher keeping in view the
following points:
 1. Nature of universe:
• Universe may be either homogenous or
heterogonous in nature.
• If the items of the universe are homogenous, a
small sample can serve the purpose.
• But if the items are heterogeneous, a large
sample would be required.
• Technically, this can be termed as the
dispersion factor.
 2. Number of classes proposed:
If many class-groups (groups and sub-groups)
are to be formed, a large sample would be
required because a small sample might not be
able to give a reasonable number of items in
each class-group.
3. Nature of study:
o If items are to be intensively and continuously
studied, the sample should be small.
o For a general survey the size of the sample
should be large, but a small sample is
considered appropriate in technical surveys.
 4. Type of sampling:
• Sampling technique plays an important part in
determining the size of the sample.
• A small random sample is apt to be much superior
to a larger but badly selected sample.
5. Standard of accuracy and acceptable confidence
level:
 If the standard of accuracy or the level of
precision is to be kept high, we shall require
relatively larger sample.
 For doubling the accuracy for a fixed significance
level, the sample size has to be increased fourfold.
 6. Availability of finance:
• In practice, size of the sample depends
upon the amount of money available for
the study purposes.
• This factor should be kept in view while
determining the size of sample for large
samples result in increasing the cost of
sampling estimates.
 7. Other considerations:
• Nature of units, size of the
population, size of questionnaire,
availability of trained investigators,
the conditions under which the
sample is being conducted, the time
available for completion of the study
are a few other considerations to
which a researcher must pay attention
while selecting the size of the sample.
 2.3.7 Selecting a sample size

• The purpose of calculating sample sizes

correctly is to ensure that the conclusions
gained after analysis can be applied to the full
population under investigation.
• One of the most widely used methods for
calculating sample size is shown below.
• The statistical formula devised by Taro Yamane
is as follows:
n
 Con…
• In the formula above;
• n - is the required sample size from the
population
• N -is the whole population that is under study
• e-is the precision or sampling error which is
usually 0.10, 0.05 or 0.01
• Example: Using the Taro Yamane’s statistical
formula to determine the adequate sample
size of say 300 respondents under study.
 Con…
• This would hence be:
• n=
• N=300; e= 0.1; e2= 0.01
• n = 300/1+ 300(0.1)2
• n= 75
• Therefore, a sample size 75 respondents out
of the entire population of 300 respondents
would therefore be the lowest acceptable
number of responses to maintain a 99%
confidence level.
 2.4 Issues of Validity and Reliability in Research

• The reliability refers to a measurement that

supplies consistent results with equal values.
• It measures consistency, precision,
repeatability, and trustworthiness of a
research.
• It indicates the extent to which it is without
bias (error free), and hence insures consistent
measurement cross time and across the
various items in the instruments (the observed
scores).
 Con…
• In quantitative research, reliability
refers to the consistency, stability and
repeatability of results, that is, the
result of a researcher is considered
reliable if consistent results have been
obtained in identical situations but
different circumstances.
 Con…
• Validity is often defined as the extent to
which an instrument measures what it
asserts to measure.
• It is the degree to which the results are
truthful.
• So that it requires research instrument
(questionnaire) to correctly measure the
concepts under the study.
 Con…
• Validity of research is an extent at which
requirements of scientific research
method have been followed during the
process of generating research findings.
• It is a compulsory requirement for all
types of studies.
• For example, Four different items a
researcher setout to determine the
body weights of 3 children whose true
body weights are 10, 15, and 20 Kg
respectively.
 Team 1
Child True body weights First sets of
results Neither valid
A 10 Kg 8Kg or reliable
B 15Kg 18Kg
C 20Kg 19Kg
 It is not valid b/c the research do not represent the actual
body weights.
 They are not reliable b/c they are sometimes too low or
two high.
 Team 2
Child True body weights 2nd set of results
A 10 Kg 11Kg Reliable but
not valid
B 15Kg 16Kg
C 20Kg 21Kg

Not valid b/c results do not represent the true weights.

-Reliable b/c there results increased by the same
proportion (10%) for any child.
 Team 3
Child True body weight Third set of results
A 10 Kg 10.15 kg Fairly valid
B 15kg 14.85 kg but not
C 20 kg 20.33 kg reliable
 Fairly valid b/c the research is almost representing the
true body weight.
 They are not reliable b/c two weights are for high and
one is too low.
 Team 4
Child True body weight First set of results
A 10kg 10 kg Valid &
B 15kg 15kg reliable
C 20kg 20kg

 Both are reliable and valid b/c the results are the
same as the true body weight.
 Unit Three
3. Methods of Data Collection and
Analysis in Quantitative Research
 3.1 Definition some basic terms

• Data: means observations or

evidences.
• Data are simply regarded as something
we collect and analyze in order to
arrive at research conclusions.
• Raw data: are collected data, which
have not been organized numerically.
 3.1.1 Need For Data Collection

 The data are needed in a research work to serve

the following purposes:
1. Collection of data is very essential in any
research to provide a solid foundation for it.
2. It is something like the raw material that is
used in the production of data.
• Quality of data determines the quality of
research.
3. It provides a definite direction and definite
answer to a research inquiry.
• Data are very essential for a scientific research.
 Con…
4. The data are needed to substantiate the
various arguments in research findings.
5. The main purpose of data collection is
to verify the hypotheses.
6. The qualitative data are used
• to find out the facts and
• quantitative data are employed to
formulate new theory or principles.
 Con…
7. Data are also employed to
ascertain the effectiveness of
new device for its practical
utility.
8. Data are necessary to provide
the solution of the problem.
 3.1.2 Types of data used in quantitative research investigation

• Any scientific investigation requires data

related to the study.
• The required data is obtained from two
sources called primary and secondary
sources.
• Primary Sources:
• The primary data are those which are
collected afresh and for the first time, and
thus happen to be original in character.
 Con…
• Primary data are data originally collected
and they provide firsthand information
for the use of immediate purpose.
• The sources of primary data are the
objects under study themselves and
there is also a direct contact b/n the
investigator and
• the items (objects) under investigation
because of this it is more expensive.
 Con…
• Primary data includes questionnaire, interview,
focus group discussion and key informant
interviews.
 Secondary Sources:
• When an investigator uses data, which have
already been collected by others, such data are
called "Secondary Data".
• Such data are primary data for the agency that
collected them, and become secondary for
someone else who uses these data for his/her
own purposes.
 Con…
• The secondary data can be obtained from
journals, report, government publications,
publications of professionals and research
organizations.
• Secondary data are less expensive to collect
both in money, cost and timing.
 NB:
Primary data are more expensive than
secondary data.
Data which are primary for one may be
secondary for the other.
3.1.3 Methods of Primary Data Collection
In primary data collection, you collect the data
yourself using methods such as interviews,
observations, laboratory experiments and
questionnaires.
The key point here is that the data you collect is
unique to you and your research and, until you
publish, no one else has access to it.
The methods of collecting primary and
secondary data differ since primary data are to
be originally collected, while in case of
secondary data the nature of data collection
work is merely that of compilation.
 Con…
There are many methods of collecting primary
data and the main methods include:
1. Questionnaire methods: it includes personal
interview (face to face telephone) and mail
interview.
2. Observation: It involves recording the
behavioral patterns of people, objects and
events in a systematic manner.
3. Laboratory experiment: Conducting
laboratory experiments on fields of chemical,
biological sciences and so on.
 3.2 Data collection in quantitative research

 A questionnaire consists of a number of questions

printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set
of forms.
 The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are
expected to read and understand the questions and
write down the reply in the space meant for the
purpose in the questionnaire itself.
 The respondents have to answer the questions on
their own.
 The method of collecting data by mailing the
questionnaires to respondents is most extensively
employed in various economic and business
surveys.
 The merits claimed on behalf of this method are as follows:

1. There is low cost even when the universe is large

and is widely spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers
are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well
thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable,
can also be reached conveniently.
5. Large samples can be made use of and thus the
results can be made more dependable and
reliable.
The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:

1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in

questionnaires; bias due to no-response is
often indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are
educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost
once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the
difficulty of amending the approach once
questionnaires have been dispatched.
 Con…
5. There is also the possibility of
ambiguous replies or omission of replies
altogether to certain questions;
interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing
respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest
of all.
 Characteristics of Quantitative Data
The quantitative data are collected by
administering the research tools.
These should possess the following
characteristics:
1. The quantitative data should be collected
through standardized tests.
• If self-made test is used it should be reliable
and valid.
2. They are highly reliable and valid.
• Therefore, generalization and conclusions can
be made easily with certain level of accuracy.
 Con…
3. The obtained results through quantitative data
can be easily interpreted with scientific accuracy.
4. The scoring system of quantitative data is highly
objective.
5. The use of quantitative data is always based upon
the purpose of the study.
• The specific psychometric tests are used in
difficult investigation.
6. The inferential statistical can be used with the
help of quantitative data.
7. The precision and accuracy of the results can be
obtained by using quantitative data.
3.3 Questionnaire method of data collection

• A questionnaire is a form which is prepared

and distributed for the purpose of securing
responses.
• A questionnaire is a systematic compilation of
questions that are submitted to a sampling of
population from which information is desired.
• “In general words questionnaire refers to a
device for securing answers to questions by
using a form which the respondent fills in
himself.”
 Con…
• The questionnaire may be regarded as a form of
interview on paper.
• Procedure for the construction of a questionnaire
follows a pattern similar to that of the interview
schedule.
• However, because the questionnaire is impersonal it
is all the more important to take care over its
construction.
• Since there is no interviewer to explain ambiguities
or to check misunderstandings, the questionnaire
must be especially clear in its working.
• The questionnaire is probably the most used and
most abused of the data gathering devices.
 Significance of Questionnaire

• Beginners are more commonly tempted to this

tool, because they imagine that planning and
using a questionnaire is easier than the use of
other tools.
• It is also considered to be the most flexible of
tools and possesses a unique advantage over
others.
• Critics speak of it as the lazy man’s way of
gaining information, because it is comparatively
easy to plan and administer a questionnaire.
• preparation of a good questionnaire takes a
great deal of time, ingenuity and hard work.”
 3.4 Characteristics of a questionnaire

 The following are the characteristics of a good

questionnaire:
1. The covering letter of the questionnaire is
drafted in a befriending tone and indicates its
importance to the respondents.
2. The questionnaire contains directions which are
clear and complete.
• Important items are clearly defined and each
question deals with a single idea.
3. It is reasonable short, through comprehensive
enough to secure all relevant information.
 Con…
4. It does not seek information which may
be obtainable from other sources such as
school records and University results.
5. It is attractive in appearance, neatly
arranged, clearly duplicated and free from
typographical errors.
6. It avoids annoying or embracing
questions, which arouse hostility in the
respondent.
 Con…
7. Items are arranged in categories which
ensure easy and accurate responses.
8. Questions do not contain leading
suggestions for the respondents and are
objective in nature.
9. They are arranged in good order.
• Simple and general questions should
precede the specific and complex ones.
10. They are so worded, that it is easy to
tabulate and interpret the responses.
 3.5. Construction of a questionnaire

• The general structure of a good questionnaire

• Title
• A brief introduction and explanation of
research.
• A section of general demographic questions;
gender, age, marital status, education.
• A section near the end with any sensitive or
threatening questions.
• Conclusion with brief statement again
thanking respondents for their time and effort
 Additional Considerations:

• Keep questionnaire as short as is

reasonably possible.
• Appearance of the questionnaire is
important.
oDon't crowd your questions, and use
an easy-to-read font.
• Leave some space b/n questions.
• Use bold font and underlining for
titles/headings.
 Con…
• Use examples and sample questions for
clarity, but be careful not to introduce
bias.
• Include an open-ended question at the
end of the questionnaire asking for any
additional information and/or feedback.
• This question sometimes provides some
interesting information!
 Principles of Question-Writing

• Keep questions as short and concise as

possible.
• Choose your wording carefully.
• Try not to ask questions beyond a
respondent's capabilities.
• Avoid emotional language and the use of
"loaded" words.
 Con…
• Don't use leading questions like "You
don't smoke, do you?"
• Avoid ambiguity and vagueness.
• Avoid false premises or assumptions.
• Watch for explanatory statements that
may bias the answer to the question.
• Watch out also for questions that might
influence the answers to subsequent
questions.
 3.6. Types of questionnaires

• There are two types of questions i.e., Closed

and open-ended question
A. Open-Ended Questions
• An open-ended question is a type of research
question that does not restrict respondents to
a set of predetermined answers.
• Respondents are allowed to fully articulate
their thoughts, opinions, and experiences as
long-form and short-form answers including
paragraphs, essays, or just a few sentences.
 Con…
• They are also known as free-form survey questions
because they do not restrict the respondents to a
small pool of possible answer-options.
• Open-ended questions encourage the research
participants to freely communicate what they know
and how they feel about the subject matter.
• Use open-ended questions in your questionnaire
when you want to collect qualitative responses for
your research.
• They also provide better context for the research
data by helping you to see things from a
respondent’s point of view.
 Advantages of Open-Ended Questions

1. It helps you to gather detailed information from

respondents.
2. Open-ended questions have an infinite
possibility of responses which supports variation
in your research data.
 Disadvantages of Open-ended Questions
1. Responding to open-ended questions is time-
consuming and respondents can easily abandon
the questionnaire along the way.
2. It is very difficult to statistically interpret.
• This makes open-ended questions highly
unsuitable for quantitative data collection.
 Open-ended Question Samples

1. What is the most important lesson

you’ve learned so far?
2. What do you think about our new
logo?
3. How does our product help you to
meet your goals?
 B. Close Ended Questions

• A close-ended question is one that limits

possible responses to options like Yes/No,
True/False, and the likes.
• It comes with pre-selected answer options and
requires the respondent to choose one of the
options that closely resonates with her
thoughts, opinion, or knowledge.
• Close-ended questions are best used in
quantitative research because they allow you to
collect statistical information from respondents.
 Con…
• If you want to gather a large amount of data
that can be analyzed quickly, then asking
close-ended questions is your best bet.
• An example of a closed form questionnaire
item follows:
• If group tests are used in your school, by
whom are they administered?
(a) Administrators (b) Consellors,
(c) Psychologists, (d) Psychometricians, (e)
Teachers, and (e) Others.
 I. Advantages of Close-ended Questions
A. Close-ended questions are easy and quick to answer.
B. It is cheaper to collect and analyze the responses to
close-ended questions.
II. Disadvantages of Close-ended Questions
1. It limits the amount of information that respondents
can provide in your questionnaire.
2. It can result in survey response bias as respondents
can be influenced by the options listed in the
questionnaire.
• Close-ended Question Samples
• 1. How do you start your day?
A. With coffee, B. With exercises, C. With meditation
 3.7. How to improve questionnaire items

 The questionnaire maker must depend on words alone.

 There are no certain ways of producing full proof questions,
there are principles that might be employed to make items
more precise.
 A few are suggested with the hope that students
constructing questionnaires will become critical of their first
efforts and strive to make each question as clear as possible.
1. Define or qualify terms that could easily be a
misinterpreted.
 “What is the value of your horse? The meaning of the
term value is not clear.
 These values may differ considerably.
 It is essential to frame specific questions such as, “what is
the present market value of your horse?”
 Con…
2. Be careful in using descriptive adjectives and
adverbs that have no agreed-upon-meaning.
This fault is frequently found in rating scales
as well as questionnaire.
3. Beware of double negatives .
Federal aid should not granted for those states
in which education’ is not equal regardless of
race, creed, or colour.
4. Be careful of inadequate alternatives (1)
Married? Yes/No.
 Con…
5. Avoid the double barreled question.
 Example: Do you believe that gifted students should be
placed in separate groups for instructional purposes
and assigned to special schools?
6. Underline the word if you wish to indicate special
emphasis.
 Example, Should all schools offer modern foreign
language?
7. When asking for ratings or comparisons a point of
reference is necessary.
 Example: How would you rate this student teacher’s
class room teaching?
 Superior Average Below Average.
 3.8. Administration of the questionnaire

In order to gain acceptance for his questionnaire,

the researcher should design an appealing format.
Many unattractive questionnaires end up in a
wastebasket rather in the hands of the sender.
To improve the attractiveness of the instrument,
choose a title that is clear, concise, and descriptive
of the research project, and use well typed or
printed questions that are properly spaced and
easy to read.
 It is generally advisable to group questions of a
similar nature together.
 Preparing and Administering the Questionnaire require:

1. Get all the help that you can in planning and

constructing your questionnaire.
2. Try out your questionnaire on a few friends and
questionnaires when you do this personally, you
may find that a number of your items are
ambiguous.
3. Choose respondents carefully.
4. If schedules or questionnaires are planned for
use in a public school, asking for the responses
of teachers or pupils, it is essential that approval
of the project be secured from the principal.
 Con…
5. If the desired information is delicate or intimate in
nature, consider the possibility of proving for
anonymous responses.
 The anonymous instrument is most likely to produce
objective responses.
6. Try to get the aid of sponsorship.
 Recipients are more likely to answer if a person,
organization, or institution for prestige has endorsed
the project.
7. Be sure to include a courteous, carefully
constructed cover letter to explain the purpose of
the study.
 Common Faults in Questionnaire

• Questionnaire prepared by beginners suffers

from such errors as:
Too lengthy: They contain a large number of
questions requiring lengthy answers.
 Vague: Items are imperfectly worded and
improperly arranged.
The proforma itself is poorly conceived and
badly organized.
The subjects touched by the items of the
questionnaire are trivial importance.
 Unit Four
4. Statistical Tools of
Data Analysis in
Quantitative Research
 4.1 Data Analysis: Definition and Meaning

 The basic purpose of data analysis is to

dig out useful information for decision
making.
 This analysis may simply be a critical
observation of data to draw some
meaningful conclusions about it
 or it may involve highly complex
and sophisticated mathematical
techniques.
 4.1.1 What is Statistics?
• Statistics is defined as the science of
collecting, organizing, presenting,
analyzing and interpreting numerical
data for the purpose of assisting in
making a more effective decision or
draw conclusions from data.
 4.1.2 Classifications

• Depending on how data can be used

statistics is divided in to two main areas or
branches.
A. Descriptive Statistics:
- consists of the collection, organization,
summarization, and presentation of data.
- It is concerned with summary calculations,
graphs, charts and tables.
 2. Inferential Statistics:
 consists of generalizing from samples to
populations, performing estimations and
hypothesis tests, determining relationships
among variables, and making predictions.
 It is a method used to generalize from a
sample to a population.
 For example: the average income of all
families (the population) in Ethiopia can be
estimated from figures obtained from a few
hundred (the sample) families.
 4.1.3 Stages in Statistical Investigation

There are five stages or steps in any statistical

investigation.
1. Collection of data: the process of measuring,
gathering, and assembling the raw data up on
which the statistical investigation is to be based.
2. Organization of data: Summarization of data in
some meaningful way, e.g table form.
3. Presentation of the data: The process of
re-organization, classification, compilation, and
summarization of data to present it in a
meaningful form.
 4. Analysis of data:
 The process of extracting relevant
information from the summarized data,
mainly through the use of elementary
mathematical operation.
5. Inference of data:
 The interpretation and further observation
of the various statistical measures through
the analysis of the data by implementing
those methods by which conclusions are
formed and inferences made.
 4.2. Measures of central tendency

 The central tendency of a distribution is

a number that represents the typical or
most representative value.
 Measures of central tendency provide
researchers with a way of characterizing
a data set with a single value.
 The most widely used measures of
central tendency are the mean, median,
and mode.
 4.2.1 Mean

• The mean is more commonly known as the

average.
• The mean is also known as the arithmetic
average.
• The mean is perhaps the most widely used
and reported measure of central tendency.
• The mean is quite simple to calculate:
• Simply add all the numbers in the data set
and then divide by the total number of
entries.
 Con…
• The result is the mean of the distribution.
• For example, the mean of 3, 2, 6, 5, and 4 is found
by adding 3 + 2 + 6 + 5 + 4 = 20 and dividing by 5;
• hence, the mean of the data is 20 ÷ 5 = 4.
• The values of the data are represented by X’s.
• In this data set, X1 = 3, X2 = 2, X3 = 6, X4 = 5, and
X5 = 4.
• To show a sum of the total X values, the symbol
∑ (the capital Greek letter sigma) is used, and
X means to find the sum of the X values in the data
set.
Con…
 NB:
• In statistics, Greek letters are used to denote
parameters, and Roman letters are used to
denote statistics.
• The mean is quite accurate when the data set is
normally distributed.
• Unfortunately, the mean is strongly influenced
by extreme values or outliers.
• Therefore, it may be misleading in data sets in
which the values are not normally distributed,
or where there are extreme values at one end
of the data set (skewed distributions).
 Con…
• For example, consider a situation in which study
participants report annual earnings of b/n $25,000
and $40,000.
• The mean annual income for the sample might
wind up being around $35,000.
• Now consider what would happen if one or two of
the participants reported earnings of $100,000 or
more.
• Their substantially higher salaries (outliers) would
disproportionately increase the mean income for
the entire sample.
• In such instances, a median or mode may provide
much more meaningful summary information.
 4.2.2 Median
The median, as implied by its name, is the
middle value in a distribution of values.
The median is the halfway point in a data
set.
 Before calculate the median, the data
must be arranged in order, or simply sort
all of the values from lowest to highest
and
then identify the middle value.
 Con…
• When the data set is ordered, it is
called a data array.
• The median is the midpoint/middle
value of the data array.
• The median either will be a specific
value in the data set or will fall
between two values.
• The symbol for the median is MD.
Steps in computing the median of a data array
Step 1. Arrange the data in order.
Step 2. Select the middle point.
 Example: The number of rooms in the given hotel
is 713, 300, 618, 595, 311, 401, and 292.
 In this example find the median.
• Step 1 Arrange the data in order. 292, 300, 311,
401, 595, 618, 713
• Step 2 Select the middle value. 292, 300, 311, 401,
595, 618, 713
↑
Median
 Con…
• Hence, the median is 401 rooms.
• Another example, sorting the set of ages as in
the following: 23 23 23 26 27 27 28 32 34 41.
• In this instance, the median is 27, because the
two middle values are both 27, with four values
on either side.
• If the two values were different, you would
simply split the difference to get the median.
•
 Con…
• For example, if the two middle values were 27
and 28, the median would be 27.5.
• Calculation of the median is even simpler
when the data set has an odd number of
values.
• In these cases, the median is simply the value
that falls exactly in the middle.
• Example, 5, 7, 9
• 7 is median.
 4.2.3 Mode
The third measure of average is called the
mode.
The mode is the value that occurs most
frequently in a set of values.
To find the mode, simply count the
number of times (frequency) that each
value appears in a data set.
The value that occurs most frequently is
the mode.
 Con…
• For example, by examining the sorted
distribution of ages listed below, we
could easily see that the most prevalent
age in the sample is 23, which is
therefore the mode.
• 23 23 23 26 27 27 28 32 34 41 with
larger data sets,
• the mode is more easily identified by
examining a frequency table.
 Con…
A data set that has only one value that occurs
with the greatest frequency is said to be
unimodal.
If a data set has two values that occur with
the same greatest frequency, both values are
considered to be the mode and the data set is
said to be bimodal.
 If a data set has more than two values that
occur with the same greatest frequency, each
value is used as the mode, and the data set is
said to be multimodal.
 Con…
When no data value occurs more than once,
the data set is said to have no mode.
A data set can have more than one mode or no
mode at all.
The mode is very useful with nominal and
ordinal data or when the data are not normally
distributed, because it is not influenced by
extreme values or outliers.
Therefore, the mode is a good summary
statistic even in cases when distributions are
skewed.
 4.2.4 Midrange

• The midrange is a rough estimate of the

middle.
• It is found by adding the lowest and
highest values in the data set and dividing
by 2.
• It is a very rough estimate of the average
and can be affected by one extremely
high or low value.
• In a given test students score the following
results. 2, 3, 6, 8, 4, and 1.
 Con…
• In this example find the midrange.
1+8
• Hence, MR = 2 = 9 ÷2 = 4.5
• The midrange is 4.5.
• If the data set contains one extremely
large value or one extremely small
value, a higher or lower midrange
value will result and
• may not be a typical description of
the middle.
 Properties and Uses of Central Tendency

The Mean
• The mean is found by using all the values
of the data.
• The mean varies less than the median or
mode when samples are taken from the
same population and all three measures
are computed for these samples.
• The mean is used in computing other
statistics, such as the variance.
 Con…
• The mean for the data set is unique and
not necessarily one of the data values.
• The mean cannot be computed for the
data in a frequency distribution that has
an open-ended class.
• The mean is affected by extremely high
or low values, called outliers, and
• may not be the appropriate average to
use in these situations.
 The Median

• The median is used to find the center or

middle value of a data set.
• The median is used when it is necessary to
find out whether the data values fall into
the upper half or lower half of the
distribution.
• The median is used for an open-ended
distribution.
• The median is affected less than the mean
by extremely high or extremely low
values.
 The Mode

• The mode is used when the most typical

case is desired.
• The mode is the easiest average to
compute.
• The mode can be used when the data are
nominal or categorical, such as religious
preference, gender, or political affiliation.
• The mode is not always unique.
• A data set can have more than one mode,
or the mode may not exist for a data set.
 The Midrange

• The midrange is easy to

compute.
• The midrange gives the
midpoint.
• The midrange is affected by
extremely high or low values in
a data set.
Summary of Measures of Central Tendency
 4.3 Measures of variability
• Measures of central tendency, like the mean,
describe the most likely value, but they do not tell
us anything about how the values vary.
• For example, two sets of data can have the same
mean, but they may vary greatly in the way that
their values are spread out.
• The spread, more technically referred to as the
dispersion, of a distribution provides us with
information about how tightly grouped the values
are around the center of the distribution (e.g.,
around the mean, median, and/or mode).
• The most widely used measures of dispersion are
range, variance, and standard deviation.
 4.3.1 Range
• The range of a distribution tells us the
smallest possible interval in which all the data
in a certain sample will fall.
• The range is the difference b/n the highest
and lowest values in a distribution.
• Therefore, the range is easily calculated by
subtracting the lowest value from the highest
value.
• The range is the simplest of the three
measures of variances.
 Con…
• Using our previous example, the range of
ages for the study sample would be: 41 –
23 = 18 because it depends on only two
values in the distribution,
• it is usually a poor measure of
dispersion, except when the sample size
is particularly large.
• The symbol R is used for the range.
• R = highest value - lowest value
 Con…

• Find the ranges for the paints in the

above image.
• The range is R = 60 - 10 = 50 months
 4.3.2 Variance

• A more precise measure of dispersion,

or spread around the mean of a
distribution, is the variance.
• The variance gives us a sense of how
closely concentrated a set of values is
around its average value.
• The computational procedure of
variance and standard deviation;
 Con…
Step 1 Find the mean for the data.
Step 2 Subtract the mean from each data value.
Step 3 Square each result.
Step 4 Find the sum of the squares.
Step 5 Divide the sum by N to get the variance.
Step 6 Take the square root of the variance to get
the standard deviation.
• Example: find the variance and standard
deviation for the following data set; 10, 60, 50,
30, 40, and 20
 Con…
• Step 1 Find the mean for the data.
•µ= 35
• Step 2 Subtract the mean from each data value.
10 - 35 = - 25 40 - 35 = 5 20 - 35 = - 15
50 - 35 = 15 60 - 35 = 25 30 - 35 = - 5
• Step 3 Square each result.
(-25)2 = 625 (15)2 = 225 (5)2 = 25
(25)2 = 625 (-5)2 = 25 (-15)2 = 225
 Con…
• Step 4 Find the sum of the squares.
625 + 625 + 225 +25 + 25 + 225 = 1750
• Step 5 Divide the sum by N to get the
variance.
• Variance = 1750 ÷ 6 = 291.7
• Step 6 Take the square root of the variance
to get the standard deviation.
• Hence, the standard deviation equals, or
17.1.
• It is helpful to make a table.
 Con…
A B C
Values X X-µ (X ‑ µ)2
10 -25 625
60 + 25 625
50 +15 225
30 -5 25
40 +5 25
20 -15 225
1750

• Column A contains the raw data X.

• Column B contains the differences X - µ obtained in step
2.
• Column C contains the squares of the differences
obtained in step 3.
 Con…
• The variance of a distribution gives us an
average of how far, in squared units, the values
in a distribution are from the mean, which
allows us to see how closely concentrated the
scores in a distribution are.
• The preceding computational procedure
reveals several things.
• First, the square root of the variance gives the
standard deviation; and vice versa, squaring
the standard deviation gives the variance.
 Con…
• Second, the variance is actually the
average of the square of the distance
that each value is from the mean.
• Therefore, if the values are near the
mean, the variance will be small.
• In contrast, if the values are far from
the mean, the variance will be large.
Con…
 Con…

• Exercise: Find the variance and standard

deviation for the following data.
• The data are 35, 45, 30, 35, 40, and 25.
 4.3.3 Standard Deviation/SD
• Another measure of the spread of values
around the mean of a distribution is the SD.
• The SD is simply the square root of the
variance.
• The variance and the SD of distributions are
the basis for calculating many other statistics
that estimate associations and differences
b/n variables.
• In addition, they provide us with important
information about the values in a distribution.
 Con…
• For example, if the distribution of values is
normal, or close to normal, one can conclude
the following with reasonable certainty:
• Approximately 68% of the values fall within 1 SDs
of the mean.
• Approximately 95% of the values fall within 2 SDs
of the mean.
• Approximately 99% of the values fall within 3 SDs
of the mean.
 4.4 Methods Of Data Presentation
 The presentation of data is broadly
classified in to the following two
categories:
1. Tabular presentation
2. Diagrammatic and Graphic presentation.
1. Tabular presentation
Tabular presentation is a means of bringing
together and presenting related material or
other information in columns or rows.
 Con…
• Its object is to present in concise and
orderly fashion information that could not
be presented so clearly ill any other way.
• Since the tabular arrangement facilitates
reference, comparison, and interpretation
of the data, it is particularly useful in
presenting large masses of related statistics.
• The process of arranging data in to classes
or categories according to similarities
technically is called classification.
 Con…
• Classification is a preliminary and it
prepares the ground for proper
presentation of data.
• Raw data: recorded information in its
original collected form, whether it be
counts or measurements, is referred to
as raw data.
• Frequency: is the number of values in a
specific class of the distribution.
 Con…
• Frequency distribution: is the
organization of raw data in table form
using classes and frequencies.
• There are three basic types of frequency
distributions
1. Ungrouped frequency distribution
2. Categorical frequency distribution
3. Grouped frequency distribution
 Ungrouped frequency distribution/Simple
Frequency Distribution
• Is a table of all the potential raw score values
that could possible occur in the data along with
the number of times each actually occurred.
• It is often constructed for small set or data on
discrete variable.
• N (total number of scores) always equals the
sum of the frequency.
• Sf = N
 Constructing ungrouped frequency
distribution:
• First find the smallest and largest raw
score in the collected data.
• Arrange the data in order of magnitude
and count the frequency.
• To facilitate counting one may include a
column of tallies.
• Example: The following data represent
the mark of 20 students and find the
frequency distribution?
 80 76 90 85 80
70 60 62 70 85
65 60 63 74 75
76 70 70 80 85

• Construct a frequency distribution, which is

ungrouped.
• Step 1: Find the range,
• Range = Max-Min = 90 60=30.
• Step 2: Make a table as shown
• Step 3: Tally the data.
• Step 4: Compute the frequency.
 Con…
• Construct a frequency distribution, which
is ungrouped.
• Step 1: Find the range,
• Range = Max-Min = 90 - 60=30.
• Step 2: Make a table as shown
• Step 3: Tally the data.
• Step 4: Compute the frequency.
Mark Tally Frequency Percentages (%)
60 // 2 10
62 / 1 5
63 / 1 5
65 / 1 5
70 //// 4 20
74 / 1 5
75 // 2 10
76 / 1 5
80 /// 3 15
85 /// 3 15
90 / 1 5
Total 20 20 100%
 Con…
• Each individual value is presented separately,
that is why it is named ungrouped frequency
distribution.
 Percentages (%)
• Percentages are a way to express a number as
a fraction of 100.
• They help us understand the size of one
category in relation to the whole.
• % Where f = frequency of the class, n = total
number of value.
 Con…
• Percentages are not normally a
part of frequency distribution but
they can be added since they are
used in certain types diagrammatic
such as pie charts.
• Example: Find the percentages of
values in each class by using the
above table?
 2. Diagrammatic and Graphic presentation of data

• “A Picture is Worth a Thousand Words”

• These are techniques for presenting
data in visual displays using geometric
and pictures.
• Importance:
– They have greater attraction.
– They facilitate comparison.
– They are easily understandable.
 Con…
• Diagrams are appropriate for presenting
discrete data.
• The three most commonly used
diagrammatic presentation for discrete
as well as qualitative data are:
- Pie charts
- Bar charts
 Pie chart

• A pie chart is a circle that is divided in to

sections or wedges according to the
percentage of frequencies in each
category of the distribution.
• The angle of the sector is obtained using:
 Con…
• Example: Draw a suitable diagram to represent
the following population in a town.
• Men Women Girls Boys
2500 2000 4000 1500
• Step 1: Find the percentage.
• Step 2: Find the number of degrees for each
class.
Step 3: Using a protractor and compass, graph
each section and write its name corresponding
percentage.
 Con…

Class Frequency Percent Degree

Men 2500 25 90
Women 2000 20 72
Girls 4000 40 144
Boys 1500 15 54
Con…
 Generally, diagrams/graphs:

• Qualitative data (Nominal &

Ordinal) - Bar charts (one or two
groups) and Pie chart
• Quantitative data (discrete &
continuous) - Histogram and
Frequency polygon (curve)
Summary
 THE
END!!!