Chapter 4

Network Layer

Computer
Networking: A Top
Down Approach
Dr. Dayanand J. 6th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
Professor CSE Dept.

Network Layer 4-1

Chapter 4: Network Layer
Chapter goals:
 understand principles behind network layer services:
 network layer service models
 forwarding versus routing
 how a router works
 routing (path selection)
 dealing with scale
 advanced topics: IPv6, mobility

 instantiation, implementation in the Internet

Network Layer 4-2

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a router
 4.6 Routing in the Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 4.7 Broadcast and multicast
 IPv6
routing

Network Layer 4-3

Network layer
 transport segment from sending to receiving host
application
 on sending side encapsulates segments into transport
network
datagrams data link
physical
 on rcving side, delivers segments to transport layer
network network
 network layer protocols in every host, router data link data link
network physical
physical
 router examines header fields in all IP datagrams data link
physical network
passing through it network
data link
data link
physical physical

network network
data link data link
physical physical
network
data link
physical
application
network transport
data link network
network
physical data link
network data link
physical
data link physical
physical

Network Layer 4-4

 Two Key Network-Layer Functions

 forwarding: move packets analogy:

from router’s input to
 routing: process of
appropriate router output
planning trip from source
 routing: determine route to dest
taken by packets from
 forwarding: process of
source to dest.
getting through single
 routing algorithms interchange

Network Layer 4-5

Interplay between routing and forwarding

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1

value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2

Network Layer 4-6

Connection setup
 3rd important function in some network architectures:
 ATM, frame relay, X.25
 before datagrams flow, two end hosts and intervening routers
establish virtual connection
 routers get involved
 network vs transport layer connection service:
 network: between two hosts (may also involve intervening
routers in case of VCs)
 transport: between two processes

Network Layer 4-7

Network service model
Q: What service model for “channel” transporting datagrams
from sender to receiver?

Example services for individual Example services for a flow of

datagrams: datagrams:
 guaranteed delivery  in-order datagram delivery
 guaranteed delivery with  guaranteed minimum
less than 40 msec delay bandwidth to flow
 restrictions on changes in
inter-packet spacing

Network Layer 4-8

Network layer service models:
Guarantees ?
Network Service Congestion
Architecture Model Bandwidth Loss Order Timing feedback

Internet best effort none no no no no (inferred

via loss)
ATM CBR constant yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM VBR guaranteed yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM ABR guaranteed no yes no yes
minimum
ATM UBR none no yes no no

Network Layer 4-9

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a router
 4.6 Routing in the Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 4.7 Broadcast and multicast
 IPv6
routing

Network Layer 4-10

Network layer connection and connection-
less service
 datagram network provides network-layer
connectionless service
 VC network provides network-layer connection
service
 analogous to the transport-layer services, but:
 service:host-to-host
 no choice: network provides one or the other
 implementation: in network core

Network Layer 4-11

Virtual circuits
“source-to-dest path behaves much like telephone circuit”
 performance-wise
 network actions along source-to-dest path

 call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
 each packet carries VC identifier (not destination host address)
 every router on source-dest path maintains “state” for each passing
connection
 link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be allocated to VC
(dedicated resources = predictable service)

Network Layer 4-12

VC implementation
a VC consists of:
1. path from source to destination
2. VC numbers, one number for each link along path
3. entries in forwarding tables in routers along path
 packet belonging to VC carries VC number (rather
than dest address)
 VC number can be changed on each link.
 New VC number comes from forwarding table

Network Layer 4-13

 Forwarding table VC number

12 22 32

1 3
2

Forwarding table in interface

number
northwest router:
Incoming interface Incoming VC # Outgoing interface Outgoing VC #

1 12 3 22
2 63 1 18
3 7 2 17
1 97 3 87
… … … …

Routers maintain connection state information!

Network Layer 4-14
Virtual circuits: signaling protocols

 used to setup, maintain teardown VC

 used in ATM, frame-relay, X.25
 not used in today’s Internet

application
5. Data flow begins 6. Receive data application
transport
4. Call connected 3. Accept call transport
network
1. Initiate call 2. incoming call network
data link
data link
physical
physical

Network Layer 4-15

Datagram networks
 no call setup at network layer
 routers: no state about end-to-end connections
 no network-level concept of “connection”

 packets forwarded using destination host address

 packets between same source-dest pair may take different paths

application
application
transport
transport
network
1. Send data 2. Receive data network
data link
data link
physical
physical

Network Layer 4-16

 4 billion
Forwarding table possible entries

Destination Address Range Link Interface

11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

through 0
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000

through 1
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000

through 2
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111

otherwise 3

Network Layer 4-17

Longest prefix matching

Prefix Match Link Interface

11001000 00010111 00010 0
11001000 00010111 00011000 1
11001000 00010111 00011 2
otherwise 3

Examples

DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001 Which interface?

DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010 Which interface?

Network Layer 4-18

Datagram or VC network: why?

Internet (datagram) ATM (VC)

 data exchange among computers  evolved from telephony
 “elastic” service, no strict timing
 human conversation:
req.  strict timing, reliability
 “smart” end systems (computers)
requirements
 can adapt, perform control, error  need for guaranteed service
recovery  “dumb” end systems
 simple inside network,
 telephones
complexity at “edge”
 complexity inside network
 many link types
 different characteristics
 uniform service difficult

Network Layer 4-19

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a router
 4.6 Routing in the Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 4.7 Broadcast and multicast
 IPv6
routing

Network Layer 4-20

Router Architecture Overview
Two key router functions:
 run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)
 forwarding datagrams from incoming to outgoing link

Network Layer 4-21

 Input Port Functions

Physical layer:
bit-level reception
Data link layer: Decentralized switching:
 given datagram dest., lookup output port using
e.g., Ethernet
see chapter 5 forwarding table in input port memory
 goal: complete input port processing at ‘line speed’
 queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than forwarding
rate into switch fabric

Network Layer 4-22

Three types of switching fabrics

Network Layer 4-23

Switching Via Memory
First generation routers:
traditional computers with switching under direct control of CPU
packet copied to system’s memory
speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus crossings per datagram)

Input Memory Output

Port Port

System Bus

Network Layer 4-24

 Switching Via a Bus

 datagram from input port memory

to output port memory via a shared bus
 bus contention: switching speed limited by
bus bandwidth
 32 Gbps bus, Cisco 5600: sufficient speed
for access and enterprise routers

Network Layer 4-25

Switching Via An Interconnection Network

 overcome bus bandwidth limitations

 Banyan networks, other interconnection nets initially
developed to connect processors in multiprocessor
 advanced design: fragmenting datagram into fixed length
cells, switch cells through the fabric.
 Cisco 12000: switches 60 Gbps through the interconnection
network

Network Layer 4-26

Output Ports

 Buffering required when datagrams arrive from fabric faster than the transmission rate
 Scheduling discipline chooses among queued datagrams for transmission

Network Layer 4-27

Output port queueing

 buffering when arrival rate via switch exceeds output line speed
 queueing (delay) and loss due to output port buffer overflow!

Network Layer 4-28

How much buffering?
 RFC 3439 rule of thumb: average buffering equal to
“typical” RTT (say 250 msec) times link capacity C
 e.g., C = 10 Gps link: 2.5 Gbit buffer
 Recent recommendation: with N flows, buffering
equal to
.
RTT C
N

Network Layer 4-29

Input Port Queuing
 Fabric slower than input ports combined -> queueing may occur
at input queues
 Head-of-the-Line (HOL) blocking: queued datagram at front of
queue prevents others in queue from moving forward
 queueing delay and loss due to input buffer overflow!

Network Layer 4-30

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a router
 4.6 Routing in the Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 4.7 Broadcast and multicast
 IPv6
routing

Network Layer 4-31

The Internet Network layer
Host, router network layer functions:

Transport layer: TCP, UDP

Routing protocols IP protocol

•path selection •addressing conventions
•RIP, OSPF, BGP •datagram format
Network •packet handling conventions
layer forwarding
ICMP protocol
table •error reporting
•router “signaling”

Link layer

physical layer

Network Layer 4-32

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a router
 4.6 Routing in the Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 4.7 Broadcast and multicast
 IPv6
routing

Network Layer 4-33

 IP datagram format
IP protocol version 32 bits
number total datagram
header length type of length (bytes)
ver head. length
(bytes) len service for
“type” of data fragment fragmentation/
16-bit identifier flgs
offset reassembly
max number time to upper header
remaining hops live layer checksum
(decremented at
32 bit source IP address
each router)
32 bit destination IP address
upper layer protocol
to deliver payload to Options (if any) E.g. timestamp,
record route
how much overhead data taken, specify
with TCP? (variable length, list of routers
 20 bytes of TCP typically a TCP to visit.
 20 bytes of IP or UDP segment)
 = 40 bytes + app
layer overhead
Network Layer 4-34
 IP Fragmentation & Reassembly
 network links have MTU ([Link]
size) - largest possible link-level
frame.
 different link types, different MTUs
fragmentation:
 large IP datagram divided in: one large datagram
(“fragmented”) within net out: 3 smaller datagrams
 one datagram becomes several
datagrams
 “reassembled” only at final
reassembly
destination
 IP header bits used to identify,
order related fragments

Network Layer 4-35

 IP Fragmentation and Reassembly
length ID fragflag offset
Example =4000 =x =0 =0
 4000 byte datagram
One large datagram becomes
 MTU = 1500 bytes several smaller datagrams

length ID fragflag offset

=1500 =x =1 =0
1480 bytes in
data field length ID fragflag offset
=1500 =x =1 =185
offset =
1480/8 length ID fragflag offset
=1040 =x =0 =370

Network Layer 4-36

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a router
 4.6 Routing in the Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 4.7 Broadcast and multicast
 IPv6
routing

Network Layer 4-37

IP Addressing: introduction
 IP address: 32-bit identifier [Link]

for host, router interface [Link]

[Link]
 interface: connection [Link] [Link]
between host/router and [Link]
physical link [Link] [Link]

 router’s typically have

multiple interfaces
 host typically has one [Link] [Link]
interface
 IP addresses associated with
each interface
[Link] = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001

223 1 1 1

Network Layer 4-38

Subnets
 IP address: [Link]

 subnet part (high order bits) [Link]

[Link]
 host part (low order bits) [Link]
[Link]
 What’s a subnet ?
[Link]
 device interfaces with same [Link] [Link]
subnet part of IP address
subnet
 can physically reach each
other without intervening [Link] [Link]
router

network consisting of 3 subnets

Network Layer 4-39

Subnets [Link]/24
[Link]/24

Recipe
 To determine the subnets,
detach each interface from
its host or router, creating
islands of isolated networks.
Each isolated network is
called a subnet.

[Link]/24

Subnet mask: /24

Network Layer 4-40

Subnets [Link]

How many? [Link] [Link]

[Link]

[Link] [Link]

[Link] [Link]
[Link] [Link]

[Link] [Link]

[Link] [Link] [Link] [Link]

Network Layer 4-41

IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
 subnet portion of address of arbitrary length
 address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in subnet portion
of address

subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
[Link]/23
Network Layer 4-42
IP addresses: how to get one?

Q: How does a host get IP address?

 hard-coded by system admin in a file

 Windows: control-panel->network->configuration->tcp/ip->properties
 UNIX: /etc/[Link]
 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol: dynamically get address
from as server
 “plug-and-play”

Network Layer 4-43

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
Goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address from network server when it
joins network
Can renew its lease on address in use
Allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while connected an “on”)
Support for mobile users who want to join network (more shortly)
DHCP overview:
 host broadcasts “DHCP discover” msg
 DHCP server responds with “DHCP offer” msg
 host requests IP address: “DHCP request” msg
 DHCP server sends address: “DHCP ack” msg

Network Layer 4-44

DHCP client-server scenario

A DHCP [Link]
[Link]
server
[Link]
[Link] [Link]
B
[Link] arriving DHCP
[Link] [Link] E client needs
address in this
[Link] [Link]
network

Network Layer 4-45

DHCP client-server scenario
DHCP server: [Link] arriving
DHCP discover
client
src : [Link], 68
dest.: [Link],67
yiaddr: [Link]
transaction ID: 654

DHCP offer
src: [Link], 67
dest: [Link], 68
yiaddrr: [Link]
transaction ID: 654
Lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: [Link], 68
dest:: [Link], 67
yiaddrr: [Link]
transaction ID: 655
time Lifetime: 3600 secs

DHCP ACK
src: [Link], 67
dest: [Link], 68
yiaddrr: [Link]
transaction ID: 655
Lifetime: 3600 secs

Network Layer 4-46

IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: How does network get subnet part of IP addr?
A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISP’s address
space

ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 [Link]/20

Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 [Link]/23

Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 [Link]/23
Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 [Link]/23
... ….. …. ….
Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 [Link]/23

Network Layer 4-47

Hierarchical addressing: route aggregation
Hierarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routing
information:

Organization 0
[Link]/23
Organization 1
“Send me anything
[Link]/23 with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
[Link]/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP [Link]/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
[Link]/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
beginning
[Link]/16”

Network Layer 4-48

Hierarchical addressing: more specific routes

ISPs-R-Us has a more specific route to Organization 1

Organization 0
[Link]/23

“Send me anything
with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
[Link]/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP [Link]/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
[Link]/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
Organization 1 beginning [Link]/16
or [Link]/23”
[Link]/23

Network Layer 4-49

IP addressing: the last word...

Q: How does an ISP get block of addresses?

A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers
 allocates addresses
 manages DNS
 assigns domain names, resolves disputes

Network Layer 4-50

 NAT: Network Address Translation

rest of local network

Internet (e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24 [Link]

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

[Link]

All datagrams leaving local Datagrams with source or

network have same single source NAT IP destination in this network
address: [Link], have 10.0.0/24 address for
different source port numbers source, destination (as usual)

Network Layer 4-51

 NAT: Network Address Translation
 Motivation: local network uses just one IP address as far as outside
world is concerned:
 range of addresses not needed from ISP: just one IP address for all
devices
 can change addresses of devices in local network without notifying
outside world
 can change ISP without changing addresses of devices in local
network
 devices inside local net not explicitly addressable, visible by
outside world (a security plus).

Network Layer 4-52

 NAT: Network Address Translation
Implementation: NAT router must:

 outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port #) of every

outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address, new port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT IP address,
new port #) as destination addr.
 remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP address, port
#) to (NAT IP address, new port #) translation pair
 incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new port #) in dest
fields of every incoming datagram with corresponding (source IP
address, port #) stored in NAT table

Network Layer 4-53

 NAT: Network Address Translation
NAT translation table
2: NAT router 1: host [Link]
WAN side addr LAN side addr
changes datagram sends datagram to
[Link], 5001 [Link], 3345 [Link], 80
source addr from
…… ……
[Link], 3345 to
[Link], 5001, S: [Link], 3345
updates table D: [Link], 80
[Link]
1
S: [Link], 5001
2 D: [Link], 80 [Link]
[Link]
[Link] S: [Link], 80
D: [Link], 3345 4
S: [Link], 80
D: [Link], 5001 3 [Link]
4: NAT router
3: Reply arrives changes datagram
dest. address: dest addr from
[Link], 5001 [Link], 5001 to [Link], 3345

Network Layer 4-54

NAT: Network Address Translation

 16-bit port-number field:

 60,000 simultaneous connections with a single LAN-side
address!
 NAT is controversial:
 routers should only process up to layer 3
 violates end-to-end argument
• NAT possibility must be taken into account by app designers, eg, P2P
applications
 address shortage should instead be solved by IPv6

Network Layer 4-55

NAT traversal problem
 client wants to connect to server
with address [Link]
[Link]
 server address [Link] local to LAN Client
(client can’t use it as destination addr) ?
 only one externally visible NATted
address: [Link] [Link]

 solution 1: statically configure NAT

[Link] NAT
to forward incoming connection router
requests at given port to server
 e.g., ([Link], port 2500) always
forwarded to [Link] port 25000

Network Layer 4-56

NAT traversal problem
 solution 2: Universal Plug and Play
(UPnP) Internet Gateway Device (IGD) [Link]
Protocol. Allows NATted host to:
 learn public IP address IGD
([Link]) [Link]
 add/remove port mappings (with
[Link] NAT
lease times) router

i.e., automate static NAT port map

configuration

Network Layer 4-57

 NAT traversal problem
 solution 3: relaying (used in Skype)
 NATed client establishes connection to relay
 External client connects to relay
 relay bridges packets between to connections

2. connection to
relay initiated 1. connection to
by client relay initiated
[Link]
by NATted host
3. relaying
Client
established
[Link] NAT
router

Network Layer 4-58

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a router
 4.6 Routing in the Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 4.7 Broadcast and multicast
 IPv6
routing

Network Layer 4-59

ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol

 used by hosts & routers to

communicate network-level Type Code description
information 0 0 echo reply (ping)
3 0 dest. network unreachable
 error reporting: unreachable host,
3 1 dest host unreachable
network, port, protocol 3 2 dest protocol unreachable
 echo request/reply (used by ping)
3 3 dest port unreachable
 network-layer “above” IP: 3 6 dest network unknown
 ICMP msgs carried in IP datagrams 3 7 dest host unknown
 ICMP message: type, code plus first 8 4 0 source quench (congestion
control - not used)
bytes of IP datagram causing error
8 0 echo request (ping)
9 0 route advertisement
10 0 router discovery
11 0 TTL expired
12 0 bad IP header

Network Layer 4-60

Traceroute and ICMP
 Source sends series of UDP  When ICMP message arrives,
segments to dest source calculates RTT
 First has TTL =1  Traceroute does this 3 times
 Second has TTL=2, etc. Stopping criterion
 Unlikely port number  UDP segment eventually arrives at
 When nth datagram arrives to nth destination host
router:  Destination returns ICMP “host
 Router discards datagram unreachable” packet (type 3, code
 And sends to source an ICMP 3)
message (type 11, code 0)  When source gets this ICMP,
 Message includes name of router&
stops.
IP address

Network Layer 4-61

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a router
 4.6 Routing in the Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 4.7 Broadcast and multicast
 IPv6
routing

Network Layer 4-62

 IPv6
 Initial motivation: 32-bit address space soon to be
completely allocated.
 Additional motivation:
 header format helps speed processing/forwarding
 header changes to facilitate QoS

IPv6 datagram format:

 fixed-length 40 byte header
 no fragmentation allowed

Network Layer 4-63

 IPv6 Header (Cont)
Priority: identify priority among datagrams in flow
Flow Label: identify datagrams in same “flow.”
(concept of“flow” not well defined).
Next header: identify upper layer protocol for data

Network Layer 4-64

Other Changes from IPv4
 Checksum: removed entirely to reduce processing
time at each hop
 Options: allowed, but outside of header, indicated by
“Next Header” field
 ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
 additional message types, e.g. “Packet Too Big”
 multicast group management functions

Network Layer 4-65

Transition From IPv4 To IPv6
 Not all routers can be upgraded simultaneous
 no “flag days”
 How will the network operate with mixed IPv4 and IPv6 routers?

 Tunneling: IPv6 carried as payload in IPv4 datagram

among IPv4 routers

Network Layer 4-66

Tunneling
A B E F
Logical view: tunnel

IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B E F
Physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

Network Layer 4-67

Tunneling
A B E F
Logical view: tunnel

IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
Physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

Flow: X Src:B Src:B Flow: X

Src: A Dest: E Dest: E Src: A
Dest: F Dest: F
Flow: X Flow: X
Src: A Src: A
data Dest: F Dest: F data

data data

A-to-B: E-to-F:
B-to-C: B-to-C:
IPv6 IPv6
IPv6 inside IPv6 inside
IPv4 IPv4
Network Layer 4-68
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a router
 4.6 Routing in the Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 4.7 Broadcast and multicast
 IPv6
routing

Network Layer 4-69

Interplay between routing, forwarding

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1

value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2

Network Layer 4-70

Graph abstraction
5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
Graph: G = (N,E)
x 1
y

N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }

E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

Remark: Graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts

Example: P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections

Network Layer 4-71

 Graph abstraction: costs
5 • c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
3
v w 5
2 - e.g., c(w,z) = 5
u 2 1 z
3 • cost could always be 1, or
1 2 inversely related to bandwidth,
x 1
y
or inversely related to
congestion

Cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)

Question: What’s the least-cost path between u and z ?

Routing algorithm: algorithm that finds least-cost path

Network Layer 4-72

Routing Algorithm classification
Global or decentralized Static or dynamic?
information? Static:
Global:
 routes change slowly over
 all routers have complete topology,
link cost info time
 “link state” algorithms Dynamic:
Decentralized:  routes change more quickly
 router knows physically-connected  periodic update
neighbors, link costs to neighbors
 in response to link cost
 iterative process of computation,
exchange of info with neighbors changes
 “distance vector” algorithms

Network Layer 4-73

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a router
 4.6 Routing in the Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 4.7 Broadcast and multicast
 IPv6
routing

Network Layer 4-74

A Link-State Routing Algorithm

Dijkstra’s algorithm Notation:

 net topology, link costs known to  c(x,y): link cost from node x to y;
all nodes = ∞ if not direct neighbors
 accomplished via “link state
 D(v): current value of cost of path
broadcast” from source to dest. v
 all nodes have same info
 p(v): predecessor node along path
 computes least cost paths from
from source to v
one node (‘source”) to all other
 N': set of nodes whose least cost
nodes
 gives forwarding table for that path definitively known
node
 iterative: after k iterations, know
least cost path to k dest.’s

Network Layer 4-75

Dijsktra’s Algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u
5 then D(v) = c(u,v)
6 else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'

Network Layer 4-76

 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz

5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

Network Layer 4-77

 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example (2)
Resulting shortest-path tree from u:

v w
u z
x y

Resulting forwarding table in u:

destination link
v (u,v)
x (u,x)
y (u,x)
w (u,x)
z (u,x)
Network Layer 4-78
 Dijkstra’s algorithm, discussion
Algorithm complexity: n nodes
 each iteration: need to check all nodes, w, not in N
 n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
 more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)

Oscillations possible:
 e.g., link cost = amount of carried traffic

1 A A A A
1+e 2+e 0 0 2+e 2+e 0
D 0 0 B D B D B D B
1+e 1 0 0 1+e 1
0 e 0 0 1 1+e 0 e
1
C C C C
1
e
… recompute … recompute … recompute
initially
routing
Network Layer 4-79
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a router
 4.6 Routing in the Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 4.7 Broadcast and multicast
 IPv6
routing

Network Layer 4-80

Distance Vector Algorithm
Bellman-Ford Equation (dynamic programming)
Define
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y

Then

dx(y) = min
v {c(x,v) + dv(y) }

where min is taken over all neighbors v of x

Network Layer 4-81
 Bellman-Ford example
5
3
Clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z B-F equation says:
3
1 du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
2
x
1
y
c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
Node that achieves minimum is next
hop in shortest path ➜ forwarding table
Network Layer 4-82
Distance Vector Algorithm
 Dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to y
 Node x knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v)
 Node x maintains distance vector Dx = [Dx(y): y є N ]
 Node x also maintains its neighbors’ distance vectors
 For each neighbor v, x maintains
Dv = [Dv(y): y є N ]

Network Layer 4-83

 Distance vector algorithm (4)
Basic idea:
 From time-to-time, each node sends its own distance vector
estimate to neighbors
 Asynchronous
 When a node x receives new DV estimate from neighbor, it
updates its own DV using B-F equation:
Dx(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

 Under minor, natural conditions, the estimate D (y) converge

x
to the actual least cost dx(y)

Network Layer 4-84

Distance Vector Algorithm (5)
Iterative, asynchronous: each Each node:
local iteration caused by:
 local link cost change
 DV update message from wait for (change in local link cost or
neighbor msg from neighbor)

Distributed:
 each node notifies neighbors only recompute estimates
when its DV changes
 neighbors then notify their
neighbors if necessary
if DV to any dest has changed, notify
neighbors

Network Layer 4-85

 Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)} Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
node x table = min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
cost to cost to
x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from
y ∞ ∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
z ∞ ∞ ∞ z 7 1 0
node y table
cost to
x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞
x z
from

y 2 0 1 7
z ∞ ∞ ∞
node z table
cost to
x y z
x ∞∞ ∞
from

y ∞ ∞ ∞
z 7 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-86
 Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)} Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
node x table = min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
cost to cost to cost to
x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3
from

from

from
y ∞ ∞ ∞ y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
z ∞ ∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node y table
cost to cost to cost to
x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7
from x 0 2 3 x z
from

from
y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 y 7
2 0 1
z ∞ ∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node z table
cost to cost to cost to
x y z x y z x y z
x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from
from

y y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
∞ ∞ ∞
z z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
7 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-87
 Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes: 1
 node detects local link cost change y
4 1
 updates routing info, recalculates
x z
distance vector 50
 if DV changes, notify neighbors

At time t0, y detects the link-cost change, updates its DV,

and informs its neighbors.
“good
At time t1, z receives the update from y and updates its table.
news
It computes a new least cost to x and sends its neighbors its DV.
travels
fast” At time t2, y receives z’s update and updates its distance table.
y’s least costs do not change and hence y does not send any
message to z.

Network Layer 4-88

Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes:
60
 good news travels fast y
4 1
 bad news travels slow - “count to
x z
infinity” problem! 50
 44 iterations before algorithm
stabilizes: see text
Poisoned reverse:
 If Z routes through Y to get to X :
 Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance to X is
infinite (so Y won’t route to X via
Z)
 will this completely solve count to
infinity problem?

Network Layer 4-89

Comparison of LS and DV algorithms
Message complexity Robustness: what happens if
 LS: with n nodes, E links, O(nE) msgs router malfunctions?
sent
LS:
 DV: exchange between neighbors
 node can advertise incorrect link
only
cost
 convergence time varies
 each node computes only its own
Speed of Convergence table
 LS: O(n2) algorithm requires O(nE) DV:
msgs  DV node can advertise incorrect
 may have oscillations path cost
 DV: convergence time varies  each node’s table used by others
 may be routing loops • error propagate thru network
 count-to-infinity problem

Network Layer 4-90

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a router
 4.6 Routing in the Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 4.7 Broadcast and multicast
 IPv6
routing

Network Layer 4-91

Hierarchical Routing
Our routing study thus far - idealization
 all routers identical
 network “flat”
… not true in practice

scale: with 200 million administrative autonomy

destinations:  internet = network of networks
 can’t store all dest’s in routing  each network admin may want to
tables! control routing in its own network
 routing table exchange would
swamp links!

Network Layer 4-92

Hierarchical Routing
 aggregate routers into
Gateway router
regions, “autonomous  Direct link to router in
systems” (AS)
another AS
 routers in same AS run same
routing protocol
 “intra-AS” routing protocol
 routers in different AS can run
different intra-AS routing
protocol

Network Layer 4-93

Interconnected ASes

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
1d AS1  forwarding table configured
by both intra- and inter-AS
routing algorithm
Intra-AS Inter-AS
Routing Routing
 intra-AS sets entries for
algorithm algorithm
internal dests
Forwarding  inter-AS & intra-As sets entries
table
for external dests

Network Layer 4-94

Inter-AS tasks AS1 must:
 suppose router in AS1 1. learn which dests are
receives datagram destined reachable through AS2,
outside of AS1: which through AS3
 router should forward 2. propagate this reachability
packet to gateway router, info to all routers in AS1
but which one? Job of inter-AS routing!

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
1d AS1
Network Layer 4-95
 Example: Setting forwarding table in router 1d

 suppose AS1 learns (via inter-AS protocol) that subnet x reachable

via AS3 (gateway 1c) but not via AS2.
 inter-AS protocol propagates reachability info to all internal routers.
 router 1d determines from intra-AS routing info that its interface I is
on the least cost path to 1c.
 installs forwarding table entry (x,I)

3c
… x

3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b AS1
1d
Network Layer 4-96
Example: Choosing among multiple ASes
 now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that subnet x is
reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
 to configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine towards
which gateway it should forward packets for dest x.
 this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!

3c … x …
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
1d AS1

Network Layer 4-97

Example: Choosing among multiple ASes
 now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that subnet x is
reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
 to configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine towards
which gateway it should forward packets for dest x.
 this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!
 hot potato routing: send packet towards closest of two routers.

Use routing info Determine from

Learn from inter-AS Hot potato routing: forwarding table the
from intra-AS
protocol that subnet Choose the gateway interface I that leads
protocol to determine
x is reachable via that has the to least-cost gateway.
costs of least-cost
multiple gateways smallest least cost Enter (x,I) in
paths to each
of the gateways forwarding table

Network Layer 4-98

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a router
 4.6 Routing in the Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 4.7 Broadcast and multicast
 IPv6
routing

Network Layer 4-99

Intra-AS Routing
 also known as Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP)
 most common Intra-AS routing protocols:

 RIP: Routing Information Protocol

 OSPF: Open Shortest Path First

 IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (Cisco proprietary)

Network Layer 4-100

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a router
 4.6 Routing in the Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 4.7 Broadcast and multicast
 IPv6
routing

Network Layer 4-101

RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)
 distance vector algorithm
 included in BSD-UNIX Distribution in 1982
 distance metric: # of hops (max = 15 hops)

From router A to subnets:

u destination hops
v
u 1
A B w v 2
w 2
x 3
x y 3
z C D z 2
y

Network Layer 4-102

RIP advertisements
 distance vectors: exchanged among neighbors every
30 sec via Response Message (also called
advertisement)
 each advertisement: list of up to 25 destination
subnets within AS

Network Layer 4-103

RIP: Example
z
w x y
A D B

C
Destination Network Next Router Num. of hops to dest.
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Routing/Forwarding table in D

Network Layer 4-104

 RIP: Example
Dest Next hops
w - 1 Advertisement
x - 1 from A to D
z C 4
…. … ...
z
w x y
A D B

C
Destination Network Next Router Num. of hops to dest.
w A 2
y B 2
z BA 75
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Routing/Forwarding table in D Network Layer 4-105
RIP: Link Failure and Recovery
If no advertisement heard after 180 sec --> neighbor/link declared
dead
 routes via neighbor invalidated
 new advertisements sent to neighbors
 neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if tables
changed)
 link failure info quickly (?) propagates to entire net
 poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops (infinite
distance = 16 hops)

Network Layer 4-106

RIP Table processing
 RIP routing tables managed by application-level process
called route-d (daemon)
 advertisements sent in UDP packets, periodically repeated

routed routed

Transprt Transprt
(UDP) (UDP)
network forwarding forwarding network
(IP) table table (IP)
link link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-107

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a router
 4.6 Routing in the Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 4.7 Broadcast and multicast
 IPv6
routing

Network Layer 4-108

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
 “open”: publicly available
 uses Link State algorithm
 LS packet dissemination
 topology map at each node
 route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm

 OSPF advertisement carries one entry per neighbor router

 advertisements disseminated to entire AS (via flooding)
 carried in OSPF messages directly over IP (rather than TCP or UDP

Network Layer 4-109

OSPF “advanced” features (not in RIP)

 security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to prevent malicious

intrusion)
 multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path in RIP)
 For each link, multiple cost metrics for different TOS (e.g., satellite
link cost set “low” for best effort; high for real time)
 integrated uni- and multicast support:
 Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same topology data base as OSPF
 hierarchical OSPF in large domains.

Network Layer 4-110

Hierarchical OSPF

Network Layer 4-111

Hierarchical OSPF
 two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
 Link-state advertisements only in area
 each nodes has detailed area topology; only know direction
(shortest path) to nets in other areas.
 area border routers: “summarize” distances to nets in own area,
advertise to other Area Border routers.
 backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to backbone.
 boundary routers: connect to other AS’s.

Network Layer 4-112

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a router
 4.6 Routing in the Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 4.7 Broadcast and multicast
 IPv6
routing

Network Layer 4-113

Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de facto
standard
 BGP provides each AS a means to:
1. Obtain subnet reachability information from neighboring
ASs.
2. Propagate reachability information to all AS-internal
routers.
3. Determine “good” routes to subnets based on reachability
information and policy.
 allows subnet to advertise its existence to rest of
Internet: “I am here”

Network Layer 4-114

 BGP basics
 pairs of routers (BGP peers) exchange routing info over semi-
permanent TCP connections: BGP sessions
 BGP sessions need not correspond to physical links.
 when AS2 advertises a prefix to AS1:
 AS2 promises it will forward datagrams towards that prefix.
 AS2 can aggregate prefixes in its advertisement

eBGP session
3c iBGP session
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
AS1 1d
Network Layer 4-115
Distributing reachability info
 using eBGP session between 3a and 1c, AS3 sends prefix reachability
info to AS1.
 1c can then use iBGP do distribute new prefix info to all routers in AS1
 1b can then re-advertise new reachability info to AS2 over 1b-to-2a
eBGP session
 when router learns of new prefix, it creates entry for prefix in its
forwarding table.

eBGP session
3c iBGP session
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
AS1 1d
Network Layer 4-116
Path attributes & BGP routes
 advertised prefix includes BGP attributes.
 prefix + attributes = “route”

 two important attributes:

 AS-PATH: contains ASs through which prefix advertisement has
passed: e.g, AS 67, AS 17
 NEXT-HOP: indicates specific internal-AS router to next-hop AS.
(may be multiple links from current AS to next-hop-AS)
 when gateway router receives route advertisement, uses
import policy to accept/decline.

Network Layer 4-117

BGP route selection
 router may learn about more than 1 route to some
prefix. Router must select route.
 elimination rules:
1. local preference value attribute: policy decision
2. shortest AS-PATH
3. closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato routing
4. additional criteria

Network Layer 4-118

BGP messages
 BGP messages exchanged using TCP.
 BGP messages:
 OPEN: opens TCP connection to peer and authenticates sender
 UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws old)
 KEEPALIVE keeps connection alive in absence of UPDATES; also
ACKs OPEN request
 NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg; also used to
close connection

Network Layer 4-119

 BGP routing policy
legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

 A,B,C are provider networks

 X,W,Y are customer (of provider networks)
 X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
X does not want to route from B via X to C
 .. so X will not advertise to B a route to C

Network Layer 4-120

 BGP routing policy (2)
legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

 A advertises path AW to B
 B advertises path BAW to X
 Should B advertise path BAW to C?
 No way! B gets no “revenue” for routing CBAW since neither W
nor C are B’s customers
 B wants to force C to route to w via A
 B wants to route only to/from its customers!
Network Layer 4-121
Why different Intra- and Inter-AS routing ?

Policy:
 Inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic routed, who
routes through its net.
 Intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions needed

Scale:
 hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced update traffic
Performance:
 Intra-AS: can focus on performance
 Inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance

Network Layer 4-122

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a router
 4.6 Routing in the Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 4.7 Broadcast and multicast
 IPv6
routing

Network Layer 4-123

 Broadcast Routing
 deliver packets from source to all other nodes
 source duplication is inefficient:

duplicate
duplicate
R1 creation/transmission R1
duplicate
R2 R2

R3 R4 R3 R4

source in-network
duplication duplication

 source duplication: how does source determine

recipient addresses?
Network Layer 4-124
In-network duplication
 flooding: when node receives brdcst pckt, sends copy
to all neighbors
 Problems: cycles & broadcast storm
 controlled flooding: node only brdcsts pkt if it hasn’t
brdcst same packet before
 Node keeps track of pckt ids already brdcsted
 Or reverse path forwarding (RPF): only forward pckt if it
arrived on shortest path between node and source
 spanning tree
 No redundant packets received by any node

Network Layer 4-125

Spanning Tree
 First construct a spanning tree
 Nodes forward copies only along spanning tree

A A

B B
c c

D D
F E F E

G G
(a) Broadcast initiated at A (b) Broadcast initiated at D

Network Layer 4-126

Spanning Tree: Creation
 Center node
 Each node sends unicast join message to center node
 Message forwarded until it arrives at a node already belonging to
spanning tree

A A
3
B B
c c
4
2
D D
F E F E
1 5
G G
(a) Stepwise construction of (b) Constructed spanning tree
spanning tree
Network Layer 4-127
Multicast Routing: Problem Statement
 Goal: find a tree (or trees) connecting routers having
local mcast group members
 tree: not all paths between routers used
 source-based: different tree from each sender to rcvrs
 shared-tree: same tree used by all group members

Shared tree Source-based trees

Approaches for building mcast trees
Approaches:
 source-based tree: one tree per source
 shortest path trees
 reverse path forwarding

 group-shared tree: group uses one tree

 minimal spanning (Steiner)
 center-based trees

…we first look at basic approaches, then specific protocols adopting

these approaches
Shortest Path Tree
 mcast forwarding tree: tree of shortest path routes
from source to all receivers
 Dijkstra’s algorithm

S: source LEGEND
R1 2
1 R4 router with attached
group member
R2 5
router with no attached
3 4
R5 group member
R3 6 i link used for forwarding,
R6 R7 i indicates order link
added by algorithm
Reverse Path Forwarding

 rely on router’s knowledge of unicast shortest path

from it to sender
 each router has simple forwarding behavior:

if (mcast datagram received on incoming link on

shortest path back to center)
then flood datagram onto all outgoing links
else ignore datagram
Reverse Path Forwarding: example
S: source
LEGEND
R1
R4 router with attached
group member
R2
router with no attached
R5 group member
R3 datagram will be forwarded
R6 R7
datagram will not be
forwarded

• result is a source-specific reverse SPT

– may be a bad choice with asymmetric links
Reverse Path Forwarding: pruning
 forwarding tree contains subtrees with no mcast group members
 no need to forward datagrams down subtree
 “prune” msgs sent upstream by router with no downstream
group members

S: source LEGEND

R1 router with attached

R4
group member

R2 router with no attached

P group member
P
R5 prune message
R3 P links with multicast
R6 R7 forwarding
Shared-Tree: Steiner Tree

 Steiner Tree: minimum cost tree connecting all

routers with attached group members
 problem is NP-complete
 excellent heuristics exists
 not used in practice:
 computational complexity
 information about entire network needed
 monolithic: rerun whenever a router needs to join/leave
Center-based trees
 single delivery tree shared by all
 one router identified as “center” of tree
 to join:
 edge router sends unicast join-msg addressed to center
router
 join-msg “processed” by intermediate routers and
forwarded towards center
 join-msg either hits existing tree branch for this center, or
arrives at center
 path taken by join-msg becomes new branch of tree for this
router
Center-based trees: an example

Suppose R6 chosen as center:

LEGEND

R1 router with attached

R4
3 group member

R2 router with no attached

2 group member
1
R5 path order in which join
messages generated
R3
1 R6 R7
Internet Multicasting Routing: DVMRP

 DVMRP: distance vector multicast routing protocol,

RFC1075
 flood and prune: reverse path forwarding, source-
based tree
 RPF tree based on DVMRP’s own routing tables constructed
by communicating DVMRP routers
 no assumptions about underlying unicast
 initial datagram to mcast group flooded everywhere via
RPF
 routers not wanting group: send upstream prune msgs
DVMRP: continued…
 soft state: DVMRP router periodically (1 min.) “forgets”
branches are pruned:
 mcastdata again flows down unpruned branch
 downstream router: reprune or else continue to receive data

 routers can quickly regraft to tree

 following IGMP join at leaf

 odds and ends

 commonly implemented in commercial routers
 Mbone routing done using DVMRP
Tunneling
Q: How to connect “islands” of multicast routers in a
“sea” of unicast routers?

physical topology logical topology

 mcast datagram encapsulated inside “normal” (non-multicast-addressed)

datagram
 normal IP datagram sent thru “tunnel” via regular IP unicast to receiving
mcast router
 receiving mcast router unencapsulates to get mcast datagram
 PIM: Protocol Independent Multicast
 not dependent on any specific underlying unicast routing
algorithm (works with all)
 two different multicast distribution scenarios :

Dense: Sparse:
 group members densely  # networks with group members
packed, in “close” small wrt # interconnected
proximity. networks
 bandwidth more plentiful  group members “widely
dispersed”
 bandwidth not plentiful
Consequences of Sparse-Dense Dichotomy:

Dense Sparse:
 group membership by routers  no membership until routers
assumed until routers explicitly join
explicitly prune  receiver- driven construction of
 data-driven construction on mcast tree (e.g., center-based)
mcast tree (e.g., RPF)  bandwidth and non-group-
 bandwidth and non-group- router processing conservative
router processing profligate
PIM- Dense Mode

flood-and-prune RPF, similar to DVMRP but

 underlying unicast protocol provides RPF info for incoming
datagram
 less complicated (less efficient) downstream flood than
DVMRP reduces reliance on underlying routing algorithm
 has protocol mechanism for router to detect it is a leaf-
node router
PIM - Sparse Mode
 center-based approach
 router sends join msg to
rendezvous point (RP) R1
R4
 intermediate routers update join
state and forward join R2
join
 after joining via RP, router
R5
can switch to source-specific join
tree R3 R7
R6
 increased performance: less
concentration, shorter paths all data multicast rendezvous
from rendezvous point
point
PIM - Sparse Mode
sender(s):
 unicast data to RP, which
distributes down RP-rooted R1
R4
tree join
 RP can extend mcast tree R2
join
upstream to source R5
 RP can send stop msg if no join
R3 R7
attached receivers R6
 “no one is listening!”
all data multicast rendezvous
from rendezvous point
point
Chapter 4: summary
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a router
 4.6 Routing in the Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 4.7 Broadcast and multicast
 IPv6
routing

Network Layer 4-145