CS 6001 Data Mining

Module 1

[Link]
Professor
DCSE/CEG/AU

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 1

 Module 1

 Motivation: Why data mining?

 What is data mining?
 Data Mining: On what kind of data?
 Data mining functionality
 Classification of data mining systems
 Major issues in data mining

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 2

 Why Data Mining?
 The Explosive Growth of Data: from terabytes to petabytes

Data collection and data availability

Automated data collection tools, database systems, Web,
computerized society

Major sources of abundant data

Business: Web, e-commerce, transactions, stocks, …

Science: Remote sensing, bioinformatics, scientific
simulation, …

Society and everyone: news, digital cameras, YouTube
 We are drowning in data, but starving for knowledge!
 “Necessity is the mother of invention”—Data mining—
Automated analysis of massive data sets
November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 3
 What Is Data Mining?

 Data mining (knowledge discovery from data)

 Extraction of interesting (non-trivial, implicit, previously
unknown and potentially useful) patterns or knowledge
from huge amount of data
 Data mining: a misnomer?
 Alternative names
 Knowledge discovery (mining) in databases (KDD),
knowledge extraction, data/pattern analysis, data
archeology, data dredging, information harvesting,
business intelligence, etc.
 Watch out: Is everything “data mining”?
 Simple search and query processing
 (Deductive) expert systems
November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 4
 Knowledge Discovery (KDD) Process

 Data mining—core of Pattern Evaluation

knowledge discovery
process
Data Mining

Task-relevant Data

Data Selection
Warehouse
Data Cleaning

Data Integration

Databases
November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 5
 KDD Process: Several Key
Steps
 Learning the application domain

relevant prior knowledge and goals of application
 Creating a target data set: data selection
 Data cleaning and preprocessing: (may take 60% of effort!)
 Data reduction and transformation

Find useful features, dimensionality/variable reduction, invariant
representation
 Choosing functions of data mining

summarization, classification, regression, association, clustering
 Choosing the mining algorithm(s)
 Data mining: search for patterns of interest
 Pattern evaluation and knowledge presentation

visualization, transformation, removing redundant patterns, etc.
 Use of discovered knowledge
November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 6
 Are All the “Discovered” Patterns
Interesting?
 Data mining may generate thousands of patterns: Not all of
them are interesting
 Suggested approach: Human-centered, query-based, focused
mining
 Interestingness measures
 A pattern is interesting if it is easily understood by humans, valid
on new or test data with some degree of certainty, potentially
useful, novel, or validates some hypothesis that a user seeks to
confirm
 Objective vs. subjective interestingness measures
 Objective: based on statistics and structures of patterns, e.g.,
support, confidence, etc.
 Subjective: based on user’s belief in the data, e.g.,
unexpectedness, novelty, actionability, etc.
November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 7
 Why Data Mining?—Potential
Applications
 Data analysis and decision support
 Market analysis and management

Target marketing, customer relationship management
(CRM), market basket analysis, cross selling, market
segmentation
 Risk analysis and management

Forecasting, customer retention, improved underwriting,
quality control, competitive analysis
 Fraud detection and detection of unusual patterns (outliers)
 Other Applications
 Text mining (news group, email, documents) and Web mining
 Stream data mining
 Bioinformatics and bio-data analysis
November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 8
 Data Mining and Business
Intelligence
Increasing potential
to support
business decisions End User
Decisio
n
Making
Data Presentation Business
Analyst
Visualization Techniques
Data Mining Data
Information Discovery Analyst

Data Exploration
Statistical Summary, Querying, and Reporting

Data Preprocessing/Integration, Data Warehouses

DBA
Data Sources
Paper, Files, Web documents, Scientific experiments, Database Systems
November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 9
 Data Mining: Confluence of Multiple
Disciplines

Database
Technology Statistics

Machine Visualization
Learning Data Mining

Pattern
Recognition Other
Algorithm Disciplines

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 10

 Why Not Traditional Data
Analysis?
 Tremendous amount of data
 Algorithms must be highly scalable to handle such as tera-
bytes of data
 High-dimensionality of data
 Micro-array may have tens of thousands of dimensions
 High complexity of data
 Data streams and sensor data
 Time-series data, temporal data, sequence data
 Structure data, graphs, social networks and multi-linked data
 Heterogeneous databases and legacy databases
 Spatial, spatiotemporal, multimedia, text and Web data
 Software programs, scientific simulations
 New and sophisticated applications

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 11

 Multi-Dimensional View of Data
Mining
 Data to be mined
 Relational, data warehouse, transactional, stream, object-
oriented/relational, active, spatial, time-series, text, multi-
media, heterogeneous, legacy, WWW
 Knowledge to be mined
 Characterization, discrimination, association, classification,
clustering, trend/deviation, outlier analysis, etc.
 Multiple/integrated functions and mining at multiple levels
 Techniques utilized
 Database-oriented, data warehouse (OLAP), machine learning,
statistics, visualization, etc.
 Applications adapted
 Retail, telecommunication, banking, fraud analysis, bio-data
mining, stock market analysis, text mining, Web mining, etc.

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 12

 Data Mining: Classification Schemes

 General functionality
 Descriptive data mining
 Predictive data mining
 Different views lead to different classifications
 Data view: Kinds of data to be mined
 Knowledge view: Kinds of knowledge to be
discovered
 Method view: Kinds of techniques utilized
 Application view: Kinds of applications adapted
November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 13
 Data Mining: On What Kinds of
Data?
 Database-oriented data sets and applications
 Relational database, data warehouse, transactional database
 Advanced data sets and advanced applications
 Data streams and sensor data
 Time-series data, temporal data, sequence data (incl. bio-
sequences)
 Structure data, graphs, social networks and multi-linked data
 Object-relational databases
 Heterogeneous databases and legacy databases
 Spatial data and spatiotemporal data
 Multimedia database
 Text databases
 The World-Wide Web
November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 14
Data Mining

+ =
Interestingness Hidden
Data criteria patterns
Data Mining
Type
of
Patterns

+ =
Interestingness Hidden
Data criteria patterns
Data Mining

Type of data Type of

Interestingness criteria

+ =
Interestingness Hidden
Data criteria patterns
 Data Mining Functionalities

 Multidimensional concept description:

Characterization and discrimination
 Association Rule mining
 Classification and prediction
 Cluster analysis
 Outlier analysis
 Trend and evolution analysis

18
 Data Mining Functionalities
 Multidimensional concept description: Characterization and
discrimination
 Generalize, summarize, and contrast data
characteristics, e.g., dry vs. wet regions
 Frequent patterns, association, correlation vs. causality
 Diaper  Beer [0.5%, 75%] (Correlation or causality?)
 Classification and prediction
 Construct models (functions) that describe and
distinguish classes or concepts for future prediction

E.g., classify countries based on (climate), or classify
cars based on (gas mileage)
 Predict some unknown or missing numerical values

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 19

 Data Mining Functionalities (2)
 Cluster analysis
 Class label is unknown: Group data to form new classes,

e.g., cluster houses to find distribution patterns

 Maximizing intra-class similarity & minimizing interclass

similarity
 Outlier analysis
 Outlier: Data object that does not comply with the general

behavior of the data

 Noise or exception? Useful in fraud detection, rare events

analysis

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 20

 Data Mining Functionalities (2)

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 21

 Class/Concept Description: Characterization and Discrimination
• Data entries can be associated with different
– classes (e.g., computers, printers) or
– concepts (e.g., bigSpenders, budgetSpenders).
• Class/Concept Descriptions - These are summarized and concise terms used to
describe individual classes or concepts, providing an overview. These descriptions
derived using Data Characterization/Discrimination/both
• Data Characterization, a method of summarizing the data of the target class in
general terms to form a description.
Example - Data Characterization - Summarizing the characteristics of data from
a target class.
A customer relationship manager at AllElectronics may want to summarize
customers who spend more than $5000 annually. The resulting description
might reveal that these customers are typically between 40 to 50 years old,
employed, and have excellent credit ratings.
The system allows users to "drill down" into specific attributes (e.g.,
occupation) to explore further details about customers.
DATA CHARACTERIZATION
 Class/Concept Description: Characterization and Discrimination

• Data Discrimination involves comparing the target class with other

classes (contrastive classes) to highlight distinctions and describe them.
• Combination of Methods: Descriptions can be formed using both data
characterization and discrimination to offer a more comprehensive
understanding.
Example - Data Discrimination - Comparing the general
features of a target class against contrasting classes to identify
distinguishing characteristics.
A user may compare software products with sales growth of at
least 10% to those with sales decrease of 30% or more in the
same period, to identify key differences.
Data discrimination methods are similar to data
characterization but emphasize comparative analysis between
target and contrasting classes.
• “How are discrimination descriptions output?” The forms of output presentation are similar to
those for characteristic descriptions, although discrimination descriptions should include
comparative measures that help to distinguish between the target and contrasting classes.
• Discrimination descriptions expressed in the form of rules are referred to as discriminant
rules.
• Data discrimination
– Target Classes:
• Frequent Shoppers: Customers who buy computer products more than twice a month.
• Infrequent Shoppers: Customers who buy computer products less than three times a
year.
– Comparative Profile:
• Frequent Shoppers:80% are aged [Link] have a university education.
• Infrequent Shoppers:60% are seniors or [Link] do not have a university
degree.
– Drill-Down: Additional analysis on occupation or income level can further reveal
discriminative features between the two classes.
support, s, probability that a transaction contains X  Y
confidence, c, conditional probability that a transaction having X also
contains Y
 Classification and Regression for Predictive Analysis
Classification - A process of finding a model that distinguishes data classes or
concepts.
– Training Data: Models are derived from training data where class labels are
known.
– Prediction: The model predicts class labels for unknown data objects.
– Model Representation:
1. Classification rules (IF-THEN)
2. Decision trees (test attributes, branches for outcomes, leaves for classes)
3. Neural networks (neuron-like units with weighted connections)
4. Other methods (naïve Bayesian, support vector machines, k-nearest-
neighbor)
• Use: Predicts categorical (discrete, unordered) labels.
Example Scenario:
Sales manager at AllElectronics wants to classify items based on responses to a sales campaign: good response,
mild response, or no response.
Descriptive features for classification: price, brand, place made, type, category.
Classification Process:
Goal: Derive a model for each class that distinguishes between them.
Result: A decision tree that identifies key features (e.g., price, brand, place made) distinguishing the three
response categories.
Benefit: Helps understand campaign impact and design future campaigns.
 Classification and Regression for Predictive Analysis
Regression - Predicts continuous values (numerical data) rather than class labels.
– Prediction: Used to estimate missing or unavailable numerical data.
– Methodology: Primarily statistical, but other methods exist.
– Use: Encompasses identifying distribution trends in data.
Preprocessing Step: Relevance Analysis
– Purpose: Identifies and selects attributes that are significantly relevant to
classification and regression.
– Exclusion: Irrelevant attributes are excluded to improve model accuracy.

Example - Regression Process:

Scenario: Predict the amount of revenue each item will generate during an
upcoming sale based on previous sales data.
Goal: Predict a continuous value (e.g., revenue) rather than categorical
labels (e.g., response type).
Result: A regression model predicting continuous outcomes (numerical
predictions).
 Major Issues in Data Mining
 Mining methodology

Mining different kinds of knowledge from diverse data types, e.g., bio,
stream, Web

Performance: efficiency, effectiveness, and scalability

Pattern evaluation: the interestingness problem

Incorporation of background knowledge

Handling noise and incomplete data

Parallel, distributed and incremental mining methods

Integration of the discovered knowledge with existing one: knowledge
fusion
 User interaction

Data mining query languages and ad-hoc mining

Expression and visualization of data mining results

Interactive mining of knowledge at multiple levels of abstraction
 Applications and social impacts

Domain-specific data mining & invisible data mining - Recommendation
System(Netflix & Spotify) , Smart Home, Online Advertising

Protection of data security, integrity, and privacy
November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 40
 Why Data Mining Query Language?

 Automated vs. query-driven?


Finding all the patterns autonomously in a database?—
unrealistic because the patterns could be too many but
uninteresting
 Data mining should be an interactive process

User directs what to be mined
 Users must be provided with a set of primitives to be used to
communicate with the data mining system
 Incorporating these primitives in a data mining query
language

More flexible user interaction

Foundation for design of graphical user interface

Standardization of data mining industry and practice
November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 41
 Primitives that Define a Data Mining
Task
 Task-relevant data
 Database or data warehouse name
 Database tables or data warehouse cubes
 Condition for data selection
 Relevant attributes or dimensions
 Data grouping criteria
 Type of knowledge to be mined
 Characterization, discrimination, association, classification,
prediction, clustering, outlier analysis, other data mining
tasks
 Background knowledge
 Pattern interestingness measurements
 Visualization/presentation of discovered patterns
November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 42
 Primitive 3: Background Knowledge

 A typical kind of background knowledge: Concept hierarchies

 Schema hierarchy
 E.g., street < city < province_or_state < country
 Set-grouping hierarchy
 E.g., {20-39} = young, {40-59} = middle_aged
 Operation-derived hierarchy
 email address: hagonzal@[Link]
login-name < department < university < country
 Rule-based hierarchy
 low_profit_margin (X) <= price(X, P1) and cost (X, P2) and
(P1 - P2) < $50

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 43

 Primitive 4: Pattern Interestingness
Measure

 Simplicity
e.g., (association) rule length, (decision) tree size
 Certainty
e.g., confidence, P(A|B) = #(A and B)/ #(B), classification
reliability or accuracy, certainty factor, rule strength, rule
quality, discriminating weight, etc.
 Utility
potential usefulness, e.g., support (association), noise
threshold (description)
 Novelty
not previously known, surprising (used to remove
redundant rules, e.g., Illinois vs. Champaign rule
implication support ratio)
November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 44
 Primitive 5: Presentation of Discovered
Patterns

 Different backgrounds/usages may require different forms of

representation
 E.g., rules, tables, crosstabs, pie/bar chart, etc.
 Concept hierarchy is also important
 Discovered knowledge might be more understandable
when represented at high level of abstraction
 Interactive drill up/down, pivoting, slicing and dicing
provide different perspectives to data
 Different kinds of knowledge require different
representation: association, classification, clustering, etc.

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 45

 DMQL—A Data Mining Query
Language

 Motivation
 A DMQL can provide the ability to support ad-hoc and
interactive data mining
 By providing a standardized language like SQL

Hope to achieve a similar effect like that SQL has
on relational database

Foundation for system development and evolution

Facilitate information exchange, technology
transfer, commercialization and wide acceptance
 Design
 DMQL is designed with the primitives described earlier

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 46

1. Classification - Classify students as "Pass" or "Fail" based on their
attendance and grades.

USE Education;
MINE CLASSIFICATION
FROM Students
ATTRIBUTES attendance, grades
LABEL Pass/Fail
USING DecisionTree;

2. Clustering - Cluster customers based on their annual income

and spending score.
USE Retail;
MINE CLUSTERS
FROM Customers
ATTRIBUTES annual_income, spending_score
USING KMeans
CLUSTERS 4;
3. Association - Discover frequent itemsets in sales transactions with
support > 20% and confidence > 60%.

USE Sales;
MINE ASSOCIATION
FROM Transactions
ATTRIBUTES items_purchased
WHERE support > 0.2 AND confidence > 0.6;

4. Pattern Analysis - Mine frequent patterns from products using a category hierarchy (e.g., Electronics
> Mobile > Smartphone).

USE Sales;
DEFINE HIERARCHY productHierarchy
AS (Electronics > Mobile > Smartphone);
MINE PATTERNS
FROM transactions
WITH productHierarchy
WHERE support > 0.1;
 5. Mining Characterization of Electronics Buyers
To mine the general characteristics of customers who buy electronics

MINE CHARACTERIZE
FROM Customers
WHERE ProductCategory = 'Electronics'
WITH AVG(Age), AVG(Income), COUNT(*) ;

6. Mining Discrimination Between Electronics and Clothing Buyers

To differentiate between customers who purchase Electronics and those who
purchase Clothing

MINE DISCRIMINATE
FROM Customers
WHERE ProductCategory IN ('Electronics', 'Clothing')
WITH AVG(Age), AVG(Income), COUNT(*) ;

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 49

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 50
 An Example Query in DMQL

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 51

 What is Data Warehouse?
 Defined in many different ways, but not rigorously.

A decision support database that is maintained separately from
the organization’s operational database

Support information processing by providing a solid platform of
consolidated, historical data for analysis.
 “A data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant,
and nonvolatile collection of data in support of management’s
decision-making process.”—W. H. Inmon
 Data warehouse :A physical repository where relational data are
specially organized to provide enterprise-wide, cleansed data in a
standardized format
 Data warehousing:

The process of constructing and using data warehouses
November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 52
 Data Warehousing
Definitions and Concepts

 Characteristics of data warehousing

 Subject oriented (sales, products, customers)
 Integrated (consistent format)
 Time variant (time series)
 Nonvolatile (can’t change/update data)
 Web based
 Relational/multidimensional structure
 Client/server (for easy end user access)
 Real-time
 Include metadata (data about data)
 Data Warehousing
Definitions and Concepts
 Data mart
A departmental data warehouse that stores
only relevant data
 Dependent data mart
A subset that is created directly from a data
warehouse
 Independent data mart
A small data warehouse designed for a
strategic business unit or a department
 Data Warehousing
Definitions and Concepts
 Operational data stores (ODS)
A type of database often used as an interim
area for a data warehouse, especially for
customer information files

Updated during the course of business
operations

Used for short term decisions

 Enterprise data warehouse (EDW)

A technology that provides a vehicle for
pushing data from source systems into a
data warehouse

Large-scale, integration of data from many
sources, standard formal
 Metadata
 Data about data. In a data warehouse,
metadata describe the contents of a data
warehouse and the manner of its use

Document data about data elements or
attributes, (name, size, data type, etc) and
data about records or data structures
(length, fields, columns, etc) and data about
data (where it is located, how it is
associated, ownership, etc.).

May include descriptive information about
the context, quality and condition, or
characteristics of the data.
 Data Warehousing
Process Overview
 Organizations continuously collect data,
information, and knowledge at an
increasingly accelerated rate and store
them in computerized systems
 The number of users needing to access the
information continues to increase as a
result of improved reliability and availability
of network access, especially the Internet
Data Warehousing
Process Overview
 OLTP vs. OLAP
OLTP OLAP
users clerk, IT professional knowledge worker
function day to day operations decision support
DB design application-oriented subject-oriented
data current, up-to-date historical,
detailed, flat relational summarized, multidimensional
isolated integrated, consolidated
usage repetitive ad-hoc
access read/write lots of scans
index/hash on prim. key
unit of work short, simple transaction complex query
# records accessed tens millions
#users thousands hundreds
DB size 100MB-GB 100GB-TB
metric transaction throughput query throughput, response

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 59

 Conceptual Modeling of Data
Warehouses
 Dimensions:
 These are descriptive attributes or characteristics of
business entities. They help you slice and dice the data.
 Examples include time, geography, product categories,
and customer segments.
 Measures:
 These are numerical values that are typically aggregated.
 They represent the business metrics, such as sales
revenue, quantity sold, profit margin, or any key
performance indicator (KPI).

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 60

 Conceptual Modeling of Data
Warehouses
 Modeling data warehouses: dimensions & measures

Star schema: A fact table in the middle connected to a set of
dimension tables

Snowflake schema: A refinement of star schema where some
dimensional hierarchy is normalized into a set of smaller
dimension tables, forming a shape similar to snowflake

Instead of having each dimension table with all its
information in one place, some of the DT are broken down
further into smaller tables. This is called as Normalization.

Fact constellations: Multiple fact tables share dimension
tables, viewed as a collection of stars, therefore called galaxy
schema or fact constellation

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 61

 Example of Star Schema
time
time_key item
day item_key
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name
month brand
quarter time_key type
year supplier_type
item_key
branch_key
branch location
location_key
branch_key location_key
branch_name units_sold street
branch_type city
dollars_sold state_or_province
country
avg_sales
Measures

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 62

 Example of Snowflake
Schema
time
time_key item
day item_key supplier
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name supplier_key
month brand supplier_type
quarter time_key type
year item_key supplier_key

branch_key
location
branch location_key
location_key
branch_key
units_sold street
branch_name
city_key
branch_type
dollars_sold city
city_key
avg_sales city
state_or_province
Measures country

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 63

 When to Normalize When NOT to Normalize
When query performance is critical (many joins)
To minimize data redundancy (redundant info)
Normalizing data can lead to the need for many joins
If you have repeating patterns in your data, like
between tables, which can slow down query
product categories or customer addresses,
performance, especially for large datasets. In such
normalization helps to store this data in one place
cases, denormalization (storing redundant data) may
(e.g., a Category table), avoiding duplication.
be a better choice for faster querying.
To reflect hierarchical data relationships When simple queries are needed (less complexity)

If your dimension data has a natural hierarchy (e.g., If the queries you expect to run are relatively simple
geographic data where countries contain states, and don’t require complex relationships, a
which contain cities), it’s more efficient to normalize denormalized schema (like the Star Schema) might
and break this data into multiple smaller tables. be more efficient.
To save storage space When data is frequently queried and doesn’t change
often
Normalization minimizes the storage footprint by
storing information once and referencing it. This is When data changes infrequently (e.g., static
particularly useful when you’re working with large reference data) but is queried often, denormalization
datasets that contain a lot of repetitive, descriptive may offer better performance, since you avoid having
information. to join tables each time a query is run.
When simplifying maintenance and development is a
priority
To ensure data integrity and consistency
If your data warehouse team wants to minimize the
Normalization ensures that data is updated in only
maintenance of complex schemas, especially when
one place. For example, if a product's category
dealing with a large number of users querying the
changes, you only need to update it in one place (in
data, a denormalized approach may be easier to
the Category table), rather than updating it in every
manage and develop for end users. The Star
transaction that involves that product.
Schema is especially suited for this, as it is easier for
November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
users to understand and query. 64
 Example of Fact
Constellation
time
time_key item Shipping Fact Table
day item_key
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name time_key
month brand
quarter time_key type item_key
year supplier_type shipper_key
item_key
branch_key from_location

branch location_key location to_location

branch_key location_key dollars_cost
branch_name units_sold
street
branch_type dollars_sold city units_shipped
province_or_state
avg_sales country shipper
Measures shipper_key
shipper_name
location_key
November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques shipper_type 65
 Multidimensional Data

 Sales volume as a function of product,

month, and region
Dimensions: Product, Location, Time
Hierarchical summarization paths
o n
gi

Industry Region Year

Re

Category Country Quarter

Product

Product City Month Week

Office Day

Month
November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 66
 A Sample Data Cube
Total annual sales
Date of TV in U.S.A.
1Qtr 2Qtr 3Qtr 4Qtr sum
ct

TV
du

PC U.S.A
o
Pr

VCR

Country
sum
Canada

Mexico

sum

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 67

 Cuboids Corresponding to
the Cube

all
0-D(apex) cuboid
product date country
1-D cuboids

product,date product,country date, country

2-D cuboids

3-D(base) cuboid
product, date, country

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 68

November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 69
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November 12, 2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 71
 Cube: A Lattice of
Cuboids
all
0-D(apex) cuboid

time item location supplier

1-D cuboids

time,location item,location location,supplier

time,item 2-D cuboids
time,supplier item,supplier

time,location,supplier
3-D cuboids
time,item,location
time,item,supplier item,location,supplier

4-D(base) cuboid
time, item, location, supplier
•Base in a Datacube context refers to the foundational layer where raw data is stored or indexed.
•Apex refers to the advanced or top layer, where complex analysis, querying, or visualizations are performed.

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 Typical OLAP Operations
 Roll up (drill-up): summarize data

by climbing up hierarchy or by dimension reduction
 Drill down (roll down): reverse of roll-up

from higher level summary to lower level summary
or detailed data, or introducing new dimensions

Slice and dice: project and select
 Pivot (rotate):

reorient the cube, visualization, 3D to series of 2D
planes
 Other operations

drill across: involving (across) more than one fact
table

drill through: through the bottom level of the cube
to its back-end relational tables (using SQL)

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 Fig. 3.10 Typical
OLAP Operations

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 Slice and dice:

The slice operation performs a selection on one

dimension of the given cube, resulting in a
subcube.
Figure 3.10 shows a slice operation where the
sales data are selected from the central cube for
the dimension time using the criterion time =
“Q1”.
The dice operation defines a subcube by
performing a selection on two or more
dimensions.
Figure 3.10 shows a dice operation on the central
cube based on the following selection criteria
that involve three dimensions: (location =
“Toronto” or “Vancouver”) and (time = “Q1” or
“Q2”) and (item = “home entertainment” or
“computer”).

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 Data Warehouse Development:
A Recommended Approach
Multi-Tier Data
Warehouse
Distributed
Data Marts

Data Data Enterprise

Mart Mart Data
Warehouse

Model refinement Model refinement

Define a high-level corporate data model

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 Integration of Data Mining and Data
Warehousing
 Data mining systems, DBMS, Data warehouse systems
coupling
 No coupling, loose-coupling, semi-tight-coupling, tight-coupling
 On-line analytical mining data
 integration of mining and OLAP technologies
 Interactive mining multi-level knowledge
 Necessity of mining knowledge and patterns at different levels
of abstraction by drilling/rolling, pivoting, slicing/dicing, etc.
 Integration of multiple mining functions
 Characterized classification, first clustering and then
association
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 Coupling Data Mining with DB/DW
Systems
 No coupling—flat file processing, not recommended
 Loose coupling
 Fetching data from DB/DW
 Semi-tight coupling—enhanced DM performance

Provide efficient implement a few data mining primitives in
a DB/DW system, e.g., sorting, indexing, aggregation,
histogram analysis, multiway join, precomputation of some
stat functions
 Tight coupling—A uniform information processing
environment
 DM is smoothly integrated into a DB/DW system, mining
query is optimized based on mining query, indexing, query
processing methods, etc.
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 Architecture: Typical Data Mining
System

Graphical User Interface

Pattern Evaluation
Know
Data Mining Engine ledge
-Base
Database or Data
Warehouse Server

data cleaning, integration, and selection

Data World-Wide Other Info

Database Repositories
Warehouse Web

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