Chapter 14 :

Insect Defence
QALBIN S ALIM FAZLI (A3503251007)
NURUL FARIDA EFRIANI (A3503251009)
Sub Chapter
14.1 Defence by hiding
14.2 Secondary lines of defence
14.3 Mechanical defences
14.4 Chemical defences
14.5 Defence by mimicry
14.6 Collective defences in gregarious and social insects
14.1 Defence by Hiding
(Crypsis)
Visual deception reduces the chance of being found by predators or
parasitoids.
A cryptic insect resembles its surroundings or an inedible/neutral object,
making it less noticeable.
Such resemblance can be called a type of mimicry, but:
◦ Crypsis = resemblance to neutral background or objects.
◦ Mimicry = resemblance to another recognizable animal.

Both crypsis and mimicry evolve because resemblance increases survival

(fitness) under natural selection by predators or parasitoids.
 Forms of Crypsis
(Camouflage Types)
Insects may adopt camouflage to blend into their background by:
1. Resembling a uniform color — e.g., green geometrid moth on a leaf.

Geometrid Moth (Tanaorhinus sp.,

Geometrinae, Geometridae)
(T. viridiluteatus or T. rafflesii)
2. Resembling a patterned background — e.g., grasshopper in vegetation or
mottled moth on tree bark.
3. Being countershaded — light underneath and dark on top (seen in some
caterpillars and aquatic insects).

3. Being countershaded — light underneath and dark on top

(seen in some caterpillars and aquatic insects).

Sphinx moth caterpillars Diving Beetle

Lepidoptera : Sphingidae Coleoptera : Dytiscidae
4. Having a disruptive pattern to break up their outline — common in moths resting
on leaf litter.
5. Possessing a bizarre body shape — e.g., membracid leafhoppers that disrupt
their silhouette.

The Buffalo treehopper (Stictocephala bisonia)

Hemiptera : Membracidae
 Masquerade (Mimesis)
A different kind of crypsis in which the insect resembles a specific object in its environment that
predators ignore.
Examples:
Bird-dropping mimicry — larvae of Papilio aegeus
resemble bird droppings.

Lepidoptera : Papilionidae
Twig mimicry — “looper” caterpillars (Geometridae) resemble twigs.
Leaf mimicry — the lepidopterans and Orthopterans, resemble leaves, sometimes with holes
or fungus marks.

A leaf-mimicking katydid, Mimetica

mortuifolia
(Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae)
Stick insects look exactly like sticks and even sway like twigs in the wind.
Thorn mimicry — some membracid bugs look like thorns on stems.

The Brazilian treehopper (Bocydium globulare)

Hemiptera : Membracidae
14.2 Secondary Lines of
Defence
🦉 Predator Learning and Detection
Inexperienced vertebrate predators (e.g., insectivorous birds) can still learn to detect
cryptic insects.
Studies of bird stomach contents show that camouflaged insects are still preyed upon.
Once a predator finds a cryptic prey (even accidentally), it can develop a “search image”
— recognizing specific patterns or shapes linked to food.
◦ Example: American blue jays, after discovering caterpillars that looked like twigs, continued pecking at
real twigs searching for food.
◦ Example: Primates can identify stick insects by only a pair of unfolded legs and may even attack real
sticks with fake legs attached.
➤ Conclusion: Specialized predators can detect cryptic insects using subtle visual cues.
🪲 Secondary Defenses After Discovery
Once crypsis (hiding) fails, insects can use additional defense strategies:
1. Thanatosis (Death Feigning)
The simplest, least energy-demanding response.
The insect remains motionless to exaggerate its camouflage.
Common behavior:
◦ Some masqueraders drop to the ground and stay still.
◦ Even non-cryptic insects (e.g., many beetles, especially weevils) pretend to be
dead.
Effectiveness:
◦ Predators may lose interest in motionless prey.
◦ Harder for predators to find an immobile insect on the ground.
2. Flash Color Display
Insect suddenly flies away, exposing brightly colored
hindwings (red, yellow, purple, or blue).
Once landing, it folds wings and becomes cryptic again.
The sudden flash of color startles predators and helps the
insect escape.
Common in:
◦ Orthopterans (grasshoppers, locusts)
◦ Underwing moths (Catocala spp.)
3. Startle Display (Eyespots and Sudden Exposure)
Insects suddenly expose eye-like patterns on hind
wings when threatened.
These “false eyes” can startle or confuse predators.
Bird experiments show:
◦ The more realistic the “eye” (more contrast rings),
the more effective the deterrence.
Some less realistic eye patterns instead divert
predator attacks to non-vital parts of the body.
 (a) The brownish
fore wings cover
the hind wings of a
resting moth.

(b)When the moth is

disturbed, the black
and blue eyespots
on the hind wings
are
revealed.
The eyed hawk moth, Smerinthus ocellatus
(Lepidoptera: Sphingidae).
4. Mimicry of Vertebrate Features
Some insects have evolved body parts resembling vertebrate animals — a form
of startle mimicry:
Fulgorid bug (Fulgora laternaria) — its head resembles a caiman’s head.
Lycaenid butterfly pupa — shaped like a monkey’s head.
Tropical sphingid larvae — take a snake-like posture; false eyespots on their
abdomen enhance the illusion.
Swallowtail butterfly caterpillars (Papilionidae) — resemble a snake’s head.
➤ These features startle or deter birds and other predators that “peer” closely
when hunting.
The difference in scale (size) is often overlooked by predators during the
moment of surprise.
14.1 Avian predators as
selective agents for insects
Henry Bates first proposed that natural enemies (e.g., birds) select prey (e.g., butterflies) based
on mimetic patterns linked to unpalatability → foundation of mimicry theory.

Industrial melanism:
During the Industrial Revolution, dark (melanic) forms increased as pollution killed light-colored
lichens on tree trunks.
Pale moths became more visible and were more frequently eaten by birds.
Example of evolution through natural selection.

Peppered moth (Biston betularia)

Lepidoptera : Geometridae
 🪲 Predators Can Overcome
Defenses

Example: Lubber grasshopper (Romalea guttata Acrididae):

◦ Large, aposematic (warning coloration), secretes pungent defensive chemicals.
◦ Avoided by most predators except the loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus).

Shrike behavior:
◦ Impales toxic prey on spikes or thorns (“lardering”) — acts as food storage and display.
◦ After 2 days, toxins degrade, making the prey edible.
◦ This preadaptive behavior allows shrikes to consume highly defended insects.
 14.3 Mechanical Defences in
Insects
1. Structural Defences
Morphological structures used for predation (e.g., spiny legs, modified mouthparts) can also serve defensive
functions in fights or against predators.
Cuticular horns and spines may deter predators or be used in combat for mates, territory, or resources (e.g.,
Onthophagus dung beetles).

2. Ectoparasite Adaptations
Ectoparasitic insects face attacks from their hosts, so body shape and hardening (sclerotization) act as protection:
◦ Fleas are laterally compressed, making them hard to remove from fur.
◦ Biting lice are flattened dorsoventrally, fitting between feather veins, safe from host preening.
◦ Many ectoparasites have tough, sclerotized cuticles as mechanical anti-predator armour.
3. Protective Constructions and Cases
Many insects build shelters or cases to deter predators that don’t recognize
them as edible or avoid eating construction materials:
◦ Webspinners (Embioptera) → live in silken galleries, communal and
defensible.
◦ Caddisfly larvae (Trichoptera) → build cases from sand, stones, or
organic fragments; protect during larval and pupal stages.
◦ Bagworms (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) → make portable silk cases from
plant material for protection and pupation.
◦ Chrysomelid larvae → decorate bodies with feces (faecal shields) for
defence.
◦ Lacewing and reduviid bug larvae → cover bodies with lichens, debris, or
prey carcasses to hide from predators and prey (camouflage + armour).
4. Waxes and Powders
Hemipterans (e.g., scale insects, woolly aphids, whiteflies, fulgorids):
◦ Secrete waxes and powders that can entangle predator mouthparts and also provide waterproofing.
Ladybird larvae (Coccinellidae) are coated in white wax, resembling their mealybug prey, disguising them from
protective ants.

5. Detachable Body Structures

Scales of moths and caddisflies detach easily, allowing escape from:
◦ Predators’ jaws,
◦ Spiders’ sticky webs,
◦ Or insectivorous plant traps (e.g., sundews).

6. Autotomy (Self-Amputation)
•Some insects can shed limbs to escape predators:
• Stick insects (Phasmatodea) and possibly crane flies (Tipulidae).
• A special muscle breaks the leg at a weak zone when grasped by a predator.
• Immature stick insects and mantids can regenerate limbs during moulting.
• Some adults can even induce an additional moult to regenerate lost limbs.
7. Mechanical Secretions
•Some insects secrete sticky or slimy substances to trap predators:
• Cockroaches → have slimy abdominal coats for protection.
• Aphids → secrete lipid-based glue from cornicles (siphunculi) that can gum up predator
mouthparts.
• Termite soldiers:
• Produce cephalic gland secretions like terpenes, forming resin-like threads when exposed to air.
• In Nasutitermes, secretion is ejected via a nasus (nozzle-like snout) as quick-drying jets that
immobilize ants.
• Effective against arthropod predators, but not vertebrates.

8. Chemical-Mechanical Interaction
Some defensive secretions act mechanically (glue, resin) but are part of a broader chemical defence
arsenal used in insect “chemical warfare.”
 West African predatory assassin bugs
(Hemiptera: Reduviidae)

Acanthaspis petax
Question and
Answer
1. What is the main strategy of Defence by Hiding in insects?
A. Producing toxic chemicals
B. Mimicking predators
C. Avoiding detection through crypsis or camouflage
D. Escaping by flying away
➡️Answer: C

2. What is the function of countershading in some insects?

A. To attract mates
B. To confuse predators by light coloration below and dark above
C. To absorb heat efficiently
D. To make the body waterproof
➡️Answer: B
3. Which of the following is an example of secondary defence?
A. Staying motionless on a leaf
B. Feigning death (thanatosis)
C. Having cryptic coloration
D. Countershading
➡️Answer: B

4. The bright color flashes revealed by some orthopterans and underwing moths serve to:
A. Attract mates
B. Warn of toxicity
C. Startle or confuse predators
D. Absorb sunlight
➡️Answer: C
5. The larvae of caddisflies and bagworms protect themselves by:
A. Using chemical sprays
B. Building protective cases from environmental materials
C. Mimicking snakes
D. Producing ultrasonic sounds
➡️Answer: B
Essay
1. The ability of an insect to blend in with its environment to avoid being seen
is called __________.
➡️Answer: crypsis

2. The behaviour of remaining motionless and pretending to be dead is known

as __________.
➡️Answer: thanatosis

3. Some insects, like stick insects, can shed a limb when attacked — a defence
mechanism called __________.
➡️Answer: autotomy
4. The waxes and powders secreted by hemipterans, such as whiteflies and aphids,
serve as __________ and __________ defences.
➡️Answer: mechanical; waterproofing

5. Assassin bugs that cover themselves with dust and debris use a form of defence that
confuses __________, __________, and __________ predators.
➡️Answer: visual; tactile; chemical