CHAPTER 2

Quantity of water
 Water demand
What do you mean by Water Demand???

 The quantity of water required for a various

purpose.
 The volume of water required by users to satisfy
their needs.
 Demand is theoretical while consumption is actual.

 To design a water supply scheme, it is important

first to know the amount of water demanded by the
user.
 Importance of demand data:
o To effectively manage existing scheme,
o To plan new works to meet future demand,
 Water demand
Estimation of Water Demand:
 Accurate estimation of water demand is difficult.
Why?

Actually, the determination of the quantity of

water is dependent upon the size of the
community and the purpose for which it is
needed.
For estimating the water demand or the quantity
of water required for a town or city the following
three factors are required to be known.
 Rate of demand
 Design period of the scheme
 Detail study of the population.
2.1 Types of Water Demand
 Quantity of Water

Types of urban water demand:

 Domestic/residential Demand,
 Industrial Demand,
 Institutional and Commercial
Demand,
 Demand for Public uses,
 Fire Demand,
 Demand for Losses and wastes

 Total 
  Consumer  Distributi on 
Total demand potential    
 demand   wastage   losses 
 
 Quantity of Water
Domestic Demand:
 Includes the water required in the houses for drinking,
cooking, bathing, washing clothes, washing hands and face,
sanitary purposes, etc.
 Domestic water consumption per person vary according to
the living conditions of the consumers.
 In most countries the domestic demand accounts about 50 to
60% of the total demand.
 The total domestic water demand shall be equal to

Total design population X per capita domestic

consumption
 There are three modes of services in domestic water demand

1. Yard connection
2. House connection and
3. Public fountain/stand pipes
Table urban per-capita per day water demand in liters (25 towns ws project)

Source: Oromia water works design and supervision enterprise

Rural per capita per day water demand in liters wb (technology options)

Source: Oromia water works design and supervision enterprise

 Quantity of Water
Commercial and Industrial Demand:
Commercial water demand:
 Vary considerably with number and type of commercial establishments.

 This includes the quantity of water required to be supplied

to hospitals, hotels, shopping centers, airports, etc.
 Less commercialized cities = Ave. 20 lit/person/day
 Highly commercialized cities = up to 50lit /person/day

Industrial water demand: constitutes water consumptions by

various industries like tanning, brewery, dairy, Textile etc.
 These quantity will vary considerably with number and type of
industries.
 City with small scattered industries = Average
50lit/person/day
 Industrial cities = Average 450lit/person/day
 Quantity of Water
Industrial and Commercial Demand:
 Major industries use their own supply not to degrade the
city's water supply and cost.

 In supply estimation, to include or exclude industrial

demand is a problem: WHY??????
 If design includes, the industry later may say that
it would have its own, and
 If it is ignored, industrial development may be
discouraged.

 Hence, on average a margin of 20-25% of the total water

demand may be taken for design.
Water demand for some industries

Source: Mekele tow water supply development project, planning and design criteria
 Quantity of Water
Public/Institutional Demand:

 This is the quantity of water required for

public utility purposes.
 Includes water for public institutions like
schools, watering of public parks, washing and
sprinkling of roads, use of public fountains,
clearing wastewater conveyance, etc
 Usually the demand may range from 2-5% of
the total demand
Typical public water demands
Category Water demand per day
Restaurants 10 l/seat
Boarding school 50 l/pupil
Day schools 5 l/pupil
Public offices 5 l/employee
Workshop/shops 5 l/employee
Mosques & Church 5 l/visitor
Cinema house 4l/seat
Abattoir 100 l/cow
Hospitals 60 l/bed
Hotels 60 l/bed
Public Bath 30 l/visitor
Railway & Bus station 5 l/user
Military Camps 60 l/person
Public latterines (with water facility connection) 20litres/seat
prison 30l/person
Swimming pool 500l/m3
 Fire Demand
Hydrant systems
 Sprinkler systems
Hose-reel systems
 Portable fire extinguishers
 Quantity of Water
Fire Demand:
 The quantity of water required for extinguishing
fire/fire fighting purpose.
 Fire hydrants are usually fitted to the water mains
and fire-fighting pumps are connected to these mains
by the fire brigade personnel when a fire breaks out
 In cities fire hydrants should be provided on the
mains at a distance of 100 to 150m apart.
 The actual amount of water used in a year for fire is
very small, but the rate of flow is large.
 Water storage requirements for fire fighting vary
with the size of city.
 Minimum Storage required is for 4 hours.
 Maximum Storage required is for 10 hours.
 Empirical formulae to determine fire demand
No. Authority / Reference Formulae (P in thousands)

American Insurance Association

(National Board of Five under writers
1 formula) Q(L/min) = (for population less than 200,000)

2 Freeman’s formula Q(L/min) =

3 Kuchling’s formula Q(L/min) =
4 Buston’s formula Q(L/min) = 5663
Insurance Services Office((For
5 a particular building) Q(m3/day) =320

Note: A=Area of floors in m2 , C=A constant, with different values according to construction, C=1.5 for
wood frame construction, C=1.0 for ordinary construction , C= 0.8 for non combustible construction
 Quantity of Water
Example 1. In Addis Ababa (Population = 5 million), if six
fires break out at different places in a day and each fire
stands for 3hours. The discharge of each three jet
stream thrown (one burning property and either side
of property) from fire hydrants should be about 1100
liters/minutes.
A) What is the total amount of water required to extinguish the
fires?
B) What is the amount of water required per person so as to use
as a basis for design of water supply scheme.

C) What do you say about the result obtained in (B)?

 Quantity of Water
Solution:
A) V = No. of fires x Discharge x Time of each
fire
= 6 x (3x1100)x(3x60)
= 3,564,000 lit
B) Per capita demand = V/No. of population
= 3,564,000/5000000
< 1 lit/person/day
C) The rate of water requirement for fire
fighting is large but the total water
consumption is less than 1lit/person/day.
Thus, the fire demand is generally ignored
while computing the total per capital water
requirement of a city.
Example 2 Cont…..
Calculate the fire demand for a population of 100,000 by using
formulae of Freeman, Knuckling and National Board of Fire
Underwriter’s.
Name of Formula Formula Fire Demand in l/min

34,095
Freeman

Kuchling’s formula Q=3182*√p 31,820

National Board of Fire

Q=4637*√p*(1-0.01*√p) 41,733
Underwriter
 Quantity of Water
Losses and Wastes: /Unaccounted for water

 The quantity of water required for the allowance of losses of water due to

defective pipe joints, cracked & broken pipes, unauthorized & illegal

connection, faulty valves & fittings etc.

These include:
 The water lost in leakage due to bad plumbing or damaged
meter
 Stolen water due to unauthorized water connection and others.
 These losses should be taken into account while estimating the
total requirements.
 Losses can be reduced by proper plumbing and careful
maintenance

 Generally ,allowance of 15 – 20% of total quantity of water is made to

compensate for the losses.

 Quantity of Water
Factors affecting losses and wastes:
 Loosen joints: due to bad plumbing. Usually
joints are leaky.
 Pressure in the distribution system:
Higher pressure in the distribution system
leads to higher leakage losses.
 System of supply: In intermittent system of
supplies, the leakage loss is reduced, as it
does not occur for the whole daylong.
 Metering: In metered supply, wastage is
considerably reduced because people become
more careful in using water as they pay for it.
 Illegal connections: People connect their
personal pipes illegally to the system.
 Per capita Demand
Per-capita demand is the annual average amount of daily water
required by one person, and includes domestic use, industrial use,
commercial use, theft, public use and waste etc…

Where ‘Q’ is the total quantity of water required by various purposes

by a town per year and ‘P’ is population of town.
The per capita demand of town is the average consumption of water
for a year.
Factors affecting per Capita Demand:
 Size of the city
Larger the city, more is the per capita demand.
 Climate conditions
The quantity of water required in hotter and dry places is more than
cold countries because of the use of air coolers, more washing of
clothes and bathing etc.
22
Quantity of Water
 Living standard of people/economic status of consumer/,
 Industrial and commercial activities: As the quantity of
water required in certain industries is much more than
domestic demand, their presence in the town will enormously
increase per capita demand of the town. As a matter of the fact
the water required by the industries has no direct link with the
population of the town.
 Quality of water supplies: If water is aesthetically $
medically safe, the consumption will increase as people will not
resort to private wells, etc
 Pressure in the distribution system,
 Development of sewage facilities: Per capita demand of the
towns having water carriage system will be more than the
town where this system is not being used.
 System of supply: intermittent VS Continuous
 Cost of water: The higher the cost, the lower will be the per
capita demand and vice versa.
 Policy of metering and method of charging.
 Water tax is charged in two different ways: on the basis of
meter reading and on the basis of certain fixed monthly rate
 Quantity of Water

Class work
 Quantity of Water
Solution
:
2.2 Variation in water demand
In practice it has been seen that water demand
does not remain uniform throughout the year.
Climatic conditions, the working day, etc tends to
cause wide variations in water use. The variation
may be categorized into three broad classes:
 Seasonal/monthly/ variation
 Daily variation and
 Hourly Variation.
Seasonal variation:
 Hot weathers produce maximum consumption,
The demand peaks during summer such variation
occurs due to larger use of water in dry season, lesser
use in rainy season.
 Firebreak outs are generally more in summer,
increasing demand.
 Cont…..
Daily variation
The rate of demand of water also varies from day to day.
Daily variation depends on the activity.
People draw out more water on Sundays or Monday? and festival
days, thus increasing demand on these days.
Thus on a rainy day the requirement of water will be much
less that on the other day which may be dry and hot.
Quantity of Water
Hourly variations: During active household working hours i.e. in the
morning and in the evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is
taken. During other hours the requirement is negligible.

Figure showing
hourly
rate of water
consumptions
 Effect of Variation in Consumption on Design
 Annual average day demand (Qday-avg) the average
daily demand over a period of one year. For economical
calculations and firefighting.

Where = Annual average day demand

P=Population
Pcd=per-capita water
consumption
 Maximum day demand (Qday-max):
the amount of water required during
the day of maximum consumption in a
year.
 Important for source (wells or river),
intake structure, main pipe source
reservoir to treatment plant, pump,
water treatment plants and water
storages.
 Treatment plants, storage reservoirs and source
are large-scale infrastructure designed to process
and store water continuously throughout the day.
They are typically sized to meet the maximum daily
demand because water usage fluctuates over the
course of a day. Designing them for peak hourly
demand would result in oversized facilities that are
underutilized most of the time, leading to
inefficiency.
 Peak hour demand (Qhr-max): the amount of water required during the hour of
maximum consumption in a given day. Important for design of distribution systems.

 Coincident draft (Qcd): the sum of maximum daily demand, Qday-max, and the fire
demand (QF).
Where = Coincident draft
= Maximum day demand
• If the sum of the fire demand and the maximum daily demand of water is less
than the maximum hourly demand of water, then the distribution system of the
water supply scheme will be designed for the maximum hourly demand of
water. = fire demand
 Distribution lines are responsible for delivering water directly to consumers at
the moment they need it. Since water usage spikes during certain times of the
day (e.g., mornings and evenings), the system must be able to handle these
short-term peaks in demand.
 Designing the distribution lines to meet peak hourly
demand ensures the system can cope with the highest
instantaneous usage periods, avoiding disruptions in supply
or pressure drops.
 If the distribution lines were only designed for maximum
daily demand, they might be undersized for the times of day
when water use is at its highest.
 Sizing the lines for peak hourly demand ensures that the
system can maintain consistent pressure, even during times
of intense water usage.
Typical Peak Factors
Maximum
Peak Hour
Day
Population Factor(PH
Factor(MD
F)
F)
0 to 20,000 1.30 2.00
20,001 to
1.25 1.90
50,000
50,001 and
1.20
Source: Design criteria by MoWR 1.70
100,000
Example
Calculate the water requirements for a community that will reach a population of 120,000 at the design
year. The estimated municipal water demand for the community is 300 l/c/d. Calculate the fire flow,
design capacity of the water treatment plant, and design capacity of the water distribution system. Use
NBFU formula for fire flow.
 P = 120,000
 Q day-avg = 300 x 120,000 =36000,000 L/d = 36000 m 3/d
 Take Df for Q day-max = 1.2 and Phf for Q peak-hr=1.6
 Q day-max =1.2 x 36000 m3/d = 43,200 m3/d
 Q peak-hr= 1.6 x 36000 m3/d = 57,600 m3/d
 Fire flow rate =

 Design capacity of treatment plant = 43,200 m3/day

 Distribution system design capacity = max. (43,200 m3/d + 65,133 m3/d = 108333m3/d
2.3 DESIGN PERIOD:
 Before designing and construction a water supply scheme, it is the engineer’s
duty to assure that the water works should have sufficient capacity to meet the
future water demand of the town for number of years.
Design period
 The length of time it is estimated that the facility will be able to meet the demand,
that is, the design capacity.
Number of years for which the designs of the water works have been done.
 Mostly water works are designed for design period of 20 - 30 years which is
fairly good period.
 The time lay between the design and completion should not be more than 2 years
The design period should neither be too long nor should it be too short.
 Cont…..
 Too long a design period leads to a larger environmental footprint from
oversized infrastructure. For example, larger treatment plants or
reservoirs require more land, materials, and energy, contributing to
higher environmental costs.
 Too short a design period also has environmental impacts, as frequent
upgrades and expansions lead to more construction activities, resource
use, and emissions over time.
 Design period is estimated based on the following:
 Useful life of the component structures. The design period should not
exceed the useful life of the component structures.
 Ease and difficulty in future expansion: Faster-growing towns
require shorter design periods with flexible, modular
systems that can be expanded incrementally. Conversely,
slower-growing towns can have longer design periods
because demand will increase at a slower rate.
 Availability of funds. If only limited funds are available then a shorter
design period will have to be considered and vice-versa.
 Rate of interest on the borrowings. If the money to be borrowed for a
water supply project is available at a lower rate of interest, then a longer
design period may be economically justified and the same may be adopted.
 Anticipated rate of growth of population, including industrial,
commercial developments. If the rate of increase of population is less, a
longer design period may be considered and vice versa.
Design of water supply scheme need to consider functionality of the
various components now and in the future.

Design periods for various units of water supply system

S. Name of Unit Design period in years
No.

1 Storage (dam) 50
2 Electric motors & pumps 15
3 Water treatment units 15
4 Distribution (pipe line) 30
5 Pipe connection to several treatment 30
plants and other appurtenant
6 Raw water and clear water conveyance 30
pipes
 2.2 Population Forecasting
 When the design period is fixed the next step is to determine the
population in various periods, because the population of the towns
generally goes on increasing.
 The water supply scheme design will be done on the basis of
projected population at the end of the design period. Otherwise
the present scheme will be inadequate in the near future.
 However, there are three major factors which affect change in
population:
 Birth
 Death
 Migration
 • Methods of Population forecasting

 Population forecasting : is the process of determining the number of population to meet their future

demands.
 The common methods to forecasting the populations are:

1. Arithmetic increase method

2. Geometric increase method

3. Incremental increase method

4. Ethiopian statistic Authority (CSA)

5. Simple graphical method

6. Master plan curve method Reading assignment

7. Logistic curve method

8. Decrease rate method

1. Arithmetic increase method
• The population is increasing at a constant rate i.e. the rate of change of population with
time is constant.
• This method is generally applicable to large and old cities.

Where; Pn =population after n decades;

Po = population at present;
n = no. of decades;
= average rate of increase of population per decade
2. Geometric increase method
 This method is based on the assumption that the percentage
increase in population remains constant.
 It is mostly applicable for growing towns and cities having vast
scope of expansion
Where: Pn =population after n decades;
Po = population at present;
n = no. of decades;
r = assumed growth rate in percent
3. Incremental increase method
 The combination of the above two methods.
 This method is best suite for any city, whether old or new.
 The future population at the end of n decade/year is
given by: Pn = Po + nI+nr
Where P = present population
I = average increase per decade/year
r = average incremental increase
n = number of decades/years
4. Ethiopian statistic Authority (CSA)

Where, Pn = population at n decades or years

Po = initial population
n = decade or year
k = growth rate in percentage
5. Decrease growth rate method
In this method, the average decrease in the percentage increase is worked out
and is subtracted from the latest percentage increase for successive period.
This method is applicable only in such cases, where the rate of growth of
population shown a downward trend.
 •The following data have been noted from the census department.

Calculate the probable population in the year 1980, 1990 and 2000 by
arithmetic increase method.
SOLUTION
Year : 1940 1950 1960 1970
Population: 8000 12, 000 17, 000 22, 500
Increase in
Population:
4000 + 5,000 + 5,000
4,000 5,000
14,5000
5, 5000
3 3
Average Increase: = = 4, 833
Probable population in various decades shall be as flows
Year Population
1980 22,500 + (1* 4833) = 27, 333
1990 22,500 + (2*4833) = 32,166
2000 22,500 + (3*4833) = 36,999
• EXAMPLE 2
Forecast the population of example 1 by means of geometrical increase method.
SOLUTION
Year Population Increase in popn Percentage increase in popn
1940 8,000 -------- ---------
1950 12,000 4,000 (4000/8000)*100 = 50%
1960 17,000 5,000 (500/12000)*100 = 41.7%
1970 22,500 5,500 (5,500/17,000)*100 = 32.4%
Total: 14,500 =124.1%
Average per Decade: =14,500/3 = 124.1%/3
= 4,833 = 41.37%
The population at the end of various decades shall be as follows:
Year Expected population
1980 22,500 + (41.37/100) 22,500 = 22,500 (1+41.37/100) = 31,808
1990 22,500 (1 + 41.37/100)2= 44,967
2000 22,500 (1 + 41.37/100)3= 63,570
 • EXAMPLE 3
Forecast the population of example 1 by mean of incremental Increase method.
SOLUTION
Year Population Increase in popn Incremental increase
1940 8,000 --------- -----------
1950 12,000 4000 -----------
1960 17,000 5000 +1000
1970 22,500 5,500 + 500
Total: 14,500 = 1,500
Average: 14,500/3 = 4833 Average: 1,500/2 = 750

The Population at the end of various decades shall be as follow:

Year Expected Population
1980 22,500 + 1* (4,833 + 750) = 28,083
1990 22,500 + 2* (4,833 + 750) = 33,666
2000 22,500 + 3* (4,833 + 750) = 39,249
 Cont.
EXAMPLE 4
Solve example 1, by using decrease rate of growth method.
Year Popn Popn increase Popn %age increase decrease in %age increase
1940 8,000 -------- -------- ------
1950 12,000 4000 4000/8000*100 =50 ------
1960 17,000 5000 5000/12,000*100 = 41.7 +8.3
1970 22,500 5,500 5,500/17,000*100 =32.4 +9.3
Total: 14,500 17.6
Average: 14,500/3 = 4,833 17.6/2 = 8.8
Now the popn at the end of various decades shall be as follows:
Net Percentage increase
Year Inc population Population
1980 32.4 - 8.8 = 23.6% 22,500 + 23.6/100*22,500 = 27,810
1990 23.6 – 8.8 = 14.8% 27,810 + 14.8/100*27,810 = 31,926
2000 14.8 – 8.8 = 6.0% 31,926 + 6/100*31,926 = 33,842
Example: From the given data, calculate the
population at the end of the next three
decades by :
a) arithmetic; b) geometric;
and c) declining growth methods.
1970 ---------- 80,000
1980 ---------- 120,000
1990 ---------- 170,000
2000 ---------- 230,000
Solution:
a) Arithmetic

K=
Therefore, 2010 ------Pn = Po + n* =
230000+1*50,000
= 280000
2020 ------ Pn = Po + n* =
230000+2*50,000
= 330000
2030 ------ Pn = Po + n* =
230000+3*50,000
= 380000
b) Geometric growth method

K=
= [0.50+0.42+0.35]*100/3
= 42.33%

Therefore, 2010 ------Pn = Po (1+ r/100)n

= 230000(1+42.33/100)1
= 327366

2020 ------Pn = 230000(1+42.33/100)2

= 465930

2030 ------Pn = 230000(1+42.33/100)3

= 663158
c) Declining growth method

Year Popn. Increase % increase Decrease

in %
Increase
1970 80000
40000 50%
1980120000 8%

50000 42%
1990170000
7%
60000 35%
2000230000
Average for decade
7.5%
Therefore, population at end of:

2010 ------ Pn = 230000 +

{(35-7.5)/100}*230000
= 230000+(27.5/100)*230,000
= 293250

2020 ------ Pn = 293250 +

{(27.5-7.5)/100}*293250
= 293250+(20/100)* 293250
= 351900

2030 ------ Pn = 351900 +

{(20-7.5)/100}*351900
= 351900+(12.5/100)* 351900
= 395887
Exercise 1
Thank you