PLANT ORGANS-

LEAVES
LEAVE
S
 Leaves are considered to
be “food factories” of
plants.
 Chlorophyll is found in leaves and other green parts of the plant. Chlorophyll,
the main photosynthetic pigment of plants is found within chloroplasts. Plant
and algal cells may contain one or more chloroplasts; an average 40-50
chloroplasts are per cell as a general rule.
 Some plant leaves are covered with dense mats of
hairs that help reduce
water loss (by reducing evaporation). And some protect
the plant by secreting toxic substances
 LEAF
TYPES
If a leaf has a single blade,
then it is a simple leaf,
and is the blade contains
two or more leaflets then
it is a compound leaf.

Simple leaves generally show undivided

Compound leaves have a fragmented
blade.
blade.
Simple leavesmay have an integer, serrate or lobed margin.
Compound leaves may be pinnate, palmate, pedate, peltate etc.
 Leaves show very different vasculature. Vessels contain
phloem and xylem. Monocot plants like Poaceae plants,
lilies and iris species have parallel veins. Dicot plants may
have reticulate, pinnate, palmate, peltate etc. venations.
 Since the plant species have a typical leaf shape, structure, venation, leaf
arrangement,
margin etc., leaf characteristics are very important to identify a plant species.

 Leaves of many plants contain a blade and a petiole. Some leaves have a leaf-like
structure called stipule at the end of the petiole where the petiole is attached to
the stem. At the conjunction part of the petiole and the stem, the axil has a special
degree of angle. Buds usually form at this axil and are called axillary buds.
 The location that the leaf is attached to the stem is called a
node
and the part between two nodes is called internode.
 Many plants do not possess a petiole and are termed as sessile
leaves since they are directly attached to the stem.
 In onions, tulips, lilies, Poaceae Plants, in many monocot
plants and also in some dicots, the leaf base
surrounds the stem is called
«leaf sheath».
SIMPLE
LEAF
Some
definitions:
 Linear: Leaves long and thin, many
times longer than wide, with parallel
margins. Grass is an example
 Lanceolate: Leaves shaped like a
lance- head, much longer than wide,
and, in technical usage, broader
towards the base. The reverse
situation would be technically termed
oblanceolate.
 Ovate: Leaves generally egg-shaped,
with the broader portion towards the
base. Often pointed at the tip.
Sometimes includes elliptical leaves
that are not clearly broader towards the
base. May be modified as in narrowly
ovate or broadly ovate.
 Elliptical or elliptic: Leaves shaped
like an ellipse; that is, generally
symmetrical, elongated, and more or
less evenly rounded at both ends.
Leaf
arrangement
Leaves are arranged in different styles. They may be alternate, opposite,
radial etc.
COMPOUND
LEAVES
 Leaf Glossary:
air space - intercellular gaps within the spongy mesophyll. These gaps are filled with gas that the plant uses (carbon dioxide - CO2 ) and gases that
the plant is expelling (oxygen - O2, and water vapor).
axil - the angle between the upper side of the stem and a leaf or petiole.
chlorophyll - a molecule in leaves that can use light energy from sunlight to turn water and carbon dioxide gas into sugar and oxygen (this
process is called photosynthesis). Chlorophyll is magnesium-based and is green.
compound leaf - a leaf that is divided into many separate parts (leaflets) along a midrib (the rachis). All the leaflets of a compound leaf are
oriented in the same plane.
crenate - having rounded teeth.
cuticle - the waxy, water-repelling layer on the outer surface of a leaf that helps keep it from dying out (and protect it from invading bacteria, insects, and
fungi). The cuticle is secreted by the epidermis (including the guard cells) and is often thinner on the underside of leaves. The cuticle is generally thicker
on plants that live in dry environments.
entire - having a smooth edge with neither teeth nor lobes.
epidermis - the protective, outler layer of cells on the surface of a leaf. The guard cells (and stoma) are part of the epidermis. The surface of many
leaves is coated with a waxy cuticle which is secreted by the epidermis.
guard cell - one of a pair of sausage-shaped cells that surround a stoma (a pore in a leaf). Guard cells change shape (as light and humidity change),
causing the stoma to
open and close.
lamina - the blade of a leaf.
leaf apex - the outer end of a leaf; the end that is opposite the petiole.
lobed - divided into rounded or pointed sections and the incisions (cuts) go less than halfway to the midrib.
mesophyll - the chlorophyll-containing leaf tissue located between the upper and lower epidermis. These cells convert sunlight into usable chemical
energy for the plant.
midrib - the central rib of a leaf - it is usually continuous with the petiole.
palisade mesophyll - a layer of elongated cells located under the upper epidermis. These cells contain most of the leaf's chlorophyll, converting
sunlight into usable
chemical energy for the plant.
parted (or cleft) - the margins between the irregular teeth go more than halfway to the midrib.
petiole - a leaf stalk; it attaches the leaf to the plant.
photosynthesis - the process in which plants convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into food energy (sugars and starches), oxygen and water.
Chlorophyll or closely-related pigments (substances that color the plant) are essential to the photosynthetic process.
pinnate - a compound leaf that is made up of many small leaflets arranged in pairs on either side of a long central midrib (the rachis). There is often a
single terminal leaflet at the end of the midrib.
serrate (or toothed) - having small, pointy teeth that point toward the tip of the leaf.
spongy mesophyll - the layer below the palisade mesophyll; it has irregularly-shaped cells with many air spaces between the cells. These cells contain
some chlorophyll. The spongy mesophyll cells communicate with the guard cells (stomata), causing them to open or close, depending on the
concentration of gases.
stem - (also called the axis) the main support of the plant.
stipule - the small, paired appendages (sometimes leaf-life) that are found at the base of the petiole of leaves of many flowering plants.
BASIC TISSUES OF
LEAVES
Basic tissues of leaves are xylem, phloem, mesophyll and
epidermis.
 The anatomy of a leaf is like a sandwich. On either side there are layers called
epidermis and on top of epidermis waxy cuticle is present to protect the
leaf against drying out. In the middle are chloroplast containing cells where
photosynthesis takes place. This middle layer is called mesophyll.
 Epidermis is the durable outer layer that protects the inner tissues
and provide structural support to the leaf. Mesophyll (the soft inner
part of the leaf) is the photosynthetic tissue of the leaf. Xylem and
phloem are conducting tissue.
EPIDERMI
SEpidermis is the durable outer layer that protects the inner tissues
and provide structural support to the leaf. Most epidermal cells lack
chloroplasts, therefore these cells are semi-transparent and sunlight
can pass to the mesophyll tissue through epidermis. Epidermis cells
are strong and they are arranged tightly to support the plant.
Since leaves have a large surface area, they are prone to losing
water from these surfaces.
 However epidermal cells release a waxy layer called cuticle to the
outside and help to reduce water loss. Cuticle layer of plants living in
arid or semi-arid environment is thicker, i.e. sometimes this layer is
thick enough to be scraped with a blade.
 In the Mediterranean region where summers are hot and arid and
winters are warm and rainy, therefore plants growing in this region
mostly have multilayered epidermal cells in order to prevent
excessive water loss.
 Upper sides of the leaves of mesophytes (plants that adapt neither to

dry or wet environment – hygrophilous plants living in somewhat

humid areas) have a thicker layer of cuticle compared to their lower
sides since the upper sides are exposed to sunlight more.
 Cuticle thickness in hydrophytes depends on the extent of staying
under water. Hydrophyte plants that have leaves in the water have
a thin layer of cuticle and leaves that float on the water or found
above the water level have a well-developed cuticle layer.

usuall
y
 Epidermal tissue contains hundreds of small holes, “breathing
pores” that are also called stomata. These holes enable gas
exchange when stomata is open; water vapor and oxygen is released
outside and carbon dioxide and air is transferred to the [Link]
location of the stomata in the lower epidermis keeps them from
becoming plugged with dust that normally gathers on the top
surface and prevents entry of harmful air borne fungal spores.
Leaves tending to stand upright, such as Iris, have stomata in both
leaf surfaces, and sincesurface the lower surfaces of waterlily leaves
are submerged, the stomata are on the top.
 Stomatal openings permit gases to enter the leaf and water
vapor to escape. Periodic stomatal closures are used to regulate
such water losses. In most plants, stomata routinely close at
night as the absorption of carbon dioxide is not necessary when
photosynthesis is not taking place. They may also close on hot, dry
days, in heavy winds or when the soil gets dry or anytime that the
uptake of water does not keep up with the rate of water loss.
 Each stoma is bordered by two special cells, called guard cells,
controlling the size of the opening. Inner walls of the guard cells that
are adjacent to the openings are thicker than the outer walls. In a
relaxed state, the guard cells lie parallel to each other with no opening
between them.
 When the plant pumps water into them, the thin walls stretch, the
shape of the cells change, curving away from each other, and the
stoma opens. Loss of water to the guard cells reverses the process.
The anatomy of leaves is perfectly designed to bring together the
ingredients for the chemistry of photosynthesis. Water and
dissolved minerals flow through the plants xylem,
connecting roots and stems with leaf petioles, midribs and
veins. Carbon dioxide enters the leaf through open stomata,
and then defuses into the mesophyll cells, where the gas
collects. Finally, in the chloroplasts, light and raw materials
converge in the process upon which all life depends.
 Stomata are usually found in the lower epidermis of the leaf where the
leaf is protected from sunlight in most mesophytes.
 In hydrophytes (plants that usually have leaves floating on water,

stomata
are only found on the upper epidermis.
 Leaves of xerophytes can have many stomata, however they shed

their leaves when humid is scarce.

 In developed dicot plants, stomata spread to every part of the leaf

surface; however in monocot plants like corn and Poaceae family

plants, stomata are arranged as parallel to conducting tissue.
 On the bases of the number and position of
subsidiary cells, various types of stomata
are distinguished. If the subsidiary cells
cannot be distinguished from the ordinary
epidermal cells, the stoma is called
anomocytic. If two subsidiary cells are
born in the complex, the stoma is either
paracytic (the longitudinal axis of
subsidiary cells is parallel with those of the
guard cells) or diacytic (the longitudinal
axis and the common wall of subsidiary
cells is perpendicular to those of the guard
cells). Besides, the stoma may be of
tetracytic (four subsidiary cells, two of
them in polar, the other ones in lateral
position), anisocytic (three subsidiary
cells, one being smaller or larger than the
other ones), actinocytic (radiate-celled
stomata) or any further types.
MESOPHY
LL
 Mesophyll is found between the upper and the lower epidermis and

consists of parenchyma cells filled with chlorophyll. These

parenchyma cells consist of palisade parenchyma and spongy
parenchyma.
 Palisade parenchyma cells are like column and spongy parenchyma cells are
irregular. Photosynthesis is usually performed within palisade parenchyma
cells. Spongy parenchyma cells are scattered and they facilitate the
entrance of carbon dioxide via gas exchange. Especially hydrophyte plants
have air spaces or aeration parenchyma (aerenchyma) in their
mesophyll tissues (aerenchyma allow for the storage and transport of gas to
the submerged tissues).
These cells not only enable floating of the leaves
on water, but also help in the transfer of air to
the roots and every part of the plant.

aerenchyma
 In general, palisade parenchyma is only found at the upper part of the
plant and spongy parenchyma is found at the lower part. Palisade
parenchyma cells may be present in more than one layer in plants that
grow in an environment where they are exposed to more sunlight
likewise, xerophyte plants may have palisade parenchyma layer both at
the upper and lower parts. In corns and in similar Poaceae plants,
monocot plants have a simpler mesophyll tissue in which mesophyll
cells have similar shapes – it is not possible to differentiate palisade
and spongy parenchyma layers.
TYPES OF
MESOPHYLL

 Bifacial (Dorsiventral) Leaves: Having distinct upper and

lower surfaces, as most common leaves.
 Monofacial (Isolateral) leaves:Upper and lower surfaces of
the
leaves can not be distinguished.
 XYLEM AND
P HLOEM
Xylem carries water and water-soluble minerals and phloem carries
soluble sugars and other photosynthesis products to the other plant
organs.
XYLEM
 Water and mineral conduction occurs in one direction
only. xyle
 It consists of tracheids, vessels, xylem fibers m
and parenchyma.
 Only xylem parenchyma is living, the other elements are
dead.
 Xylem also gives mechanical strength due to lignified

vessels
PHLOEM
 Phloem conducts food
 Consisting of sieve elements, companion cells, phloem parenchyma

and phloem fibers

 Transfer occur in 2 directions upward and downward
 Conducting channel are sievetubes

 All elements are living, only phloem fibers are dead.

 Phloem gives no mechanical strength.

 OTHER FUNCTIONS OF
LEAVES
 Due to modifications, leaves may perform different functions other
than
photosynthesis:

 Support the plant

 Function as the petals of the flower

 Function as a trap to catch bugs etc.

 Protect the growing tissues from cold in winter (bud scales)

 Food storage

 Protection from animals