Yildiz Technical University

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechatronics Engineering

Heat Transfer

Introduction

[Link]. Dr. Parisa HEIDARNEJAD

 What is heat transfer?

Heat transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature

difference.

 What is thermal energy?

Thermal energy is associated with the translation, rotation, vibration

and electronic states of the atoms and molecules that comprise
matter. It represents the cumulative effect of microscopic activities
and is directly linked to the temperature of matter.
SI base and supplementary units

SI derived units for selected quantities

 ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer equipment such as heat exchangers, boilers, condensers,
radiators, heaters, furnaces, refrigerators, and solar collectors are designed
primarily on the basis of heat transfer analysis.

The heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be considered in two

groups: (1) rating and (2) sizing problems.

The rating problems deal with the determination of the heat transfer rate for an
existing system at a specified temperature difference.

The sizing problems deal with the determination of the size of a system in
order to transfer heat at a specified rate for a specified temperature difference.
 HEAT AND OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as:
• thermal,
• mechanical,
• kinetic,
• potential,
• electrical,
• magnetic,
• chemical,
• nuclear.

• Their sum constitutes the total energy E (or e on a unit mass basis) of a system.
• The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy of a system.
 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy principle) states that energy
can neither be created nor destroyed during a process; it can only change forms.

The net change (increase or decrease) in the total

energy of the system during a process is equal to
the difference between the total energy entering
and the total energy leaving the system during that
process.

The energy balance for any system undergoing

any process in the rate form

8
In heat transfer problems it is convenient to write a heat
balance and to treat the conversion of nuclear, chemical,
mechanical, and electrical energies into thermal energy as
heat generation.
 Surface Energy Balance

This relation is valid for both steady and transient conditions, and
the surface energy balance does not involve heat generation since
a surface does not have a volume.
Energy can be transferred to or from a given mass by two mechanisms:

heat transfer and work.

Heat transfer rate: The amount of heat transferred per unit time.
Heat flux: The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to the direction
of heat transfer.

Power: The work done per unit time.

Note:

Heat Transfer Rate W

Heat Transfer J

Heat Flux W/m2

 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
• Heat can be transferred in three basic modes:

conduction
convection
radiation

• All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature difference.

 Conduction Convection Radiation
Conduction through a solid Convection from a surface Net radiation heat exchange
or a stationary fluid to a moving fluid between two surfaces
 CONDUCTION

Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more energetic

particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones
as a result of interactions between the particles.

In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and

diffusion of the molecules during their random motion.

In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the

molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free
Heat conduction through
electrons. a large plane wall of
thickness x and area A.
Conduction:

General (vector) form of Fourier’s Law:

q  k T
Heat flux Thermal conductivity Temperature gradient
2
W/m W/m K °C/m or K/m
dT T T
qx  k  k 2 1
dx L

Application to one-dimensional, steady conduction across a

plane wall of constant thermal conductivity:
The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the
temperature difference across the layer and the heat transfer area, but is
inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer.

dT T2  T1
qx  k  k
dx L

T1  T2
qx k
L

Heat rate (W): qx qx A

 ″ 𝑑𝑇
𝑞 =− 𝑘
𝑑𝑥
Thermal conductivity, k: A measure of the ability of a
material to conduct heat.
Temperature gradient dT/dx: The slope of the temperature
curve on a T-x diagram.

In heat conduction analysis, A represents

the area normal to the direction of heat
transfer.
Note: Cengel
 Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity: The rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness

of the material per unit area per unit temperature difference.

The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure

of the ability of the material to conduct heat

A simple experimental setup to

determine the thermal
conductivity of a material.

A high value for thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a

good heat conductor, and a low value indicates that the material is a
poor heat conductor or insulator.
Pure crystals and metals have
the highest thermal
conductivities, and gases and
insulating materials the lowest.
The range of thermal conductivity of
various materials at room
temperature.
The mechanisms of heat conduction in
different phases of a substance. The thermal conductivities of gases such as air vary
by a factor of 104 from those of pure metals such as
copper.
The variation of the thermal
conductivity of various
solids, liquids, and gases
with temperature.
28
Thermal Diffusivity

cp Specific heat, J/kg·°C: Heat capacity per unit mass

cp Heat capacity, J/m3·°C: Heat capacity per unit volume

 Thermal diffusivity, m2/s: Represents how fast heat diffuses

through a material
 A material that has a high thermal conductivity or a low heat
capacity will obviously have a large thermal diffusivity.
 The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the propagation of
heat into the medium.
 A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly
absorbed by the material and a small amount of heat is conducted
further.
 Convection
Convection: The mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the
adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects
of conduction and fluid motion. The faster the fluid motion, the greater the
convection heat transfer.

Relation of convection to flow over a surface and

development of velocity and thermal boundary
layers:
 Newton’s law of cooling:

h convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.°C

Ts the surface temperature
T the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.

As :the surface area through which convection heat

transfer takes place

The convection heat transfer coefficient h is not a property of the fluid.

It is an experimentally determined parameter whose value depends on all the variables influencing
convection such as
- the surface geometry
- the regime of fluid
- the properties of the fluid
FIGURE 1.5 Convection heat transfer processes. (a) Forced
convection. (b) Natural convection. (c) Boiling. (d) Condensation.
Forced convection: If the fluid is forced to flow over
the surface by external means such as a fan, pump,
or the wind.

Natural (or free) convection: If the fluid motion is

caused by buoyancy forces that are induced by density
differences due to the variation of temperature in the
fluid.
The cooling of a boiled egg by
forced and natural convection.

Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also considered to be
convection because of the fluid motion induced during the process, such as the rise of the vapor
bubbles during boiling or the fall of the liquid droplets during condensation.
Radiation
Heat transfer at a gas/surface interface involves radiation
emission from the surface and may also involve the absorption of radiation incident
from the surroundings (irradiation, G ), as well as convection if Ts T .
G
Stefan Boltzmann law

The heat flux emitted by a real surface

 = 5.670  108 W/m2 · K4 Stefan–Boltzmann constant

Emissivity  : 0   1.  = 1 (a blackbody )
Gabs  G
Ts is the absolute temperature (K)

Energy absorption due to irradiation:

Gabs :Absorbed incident radiation(W/m 2 ) 0   1.
the net rate of radiation heat transfer from the surface, expressed per unit area of the
surface, is

If the surface is assumed to be one for which (a gray surface),

Alternatively,

 hr Ts  Tsur 

qrad (1.8)

hr : Radiation heat transfer coefficient W/m 2 K 

hr  Ts  Tsur Ts2  Tsur2  (1.9)

For combined convection and radiation,

q qconv  h Ts  T   hr Ts  Tsur 

  qrad (1.10)
Absorptivity : The fraction of the radiation energy incident on a surface that is
absorbed by the surface. 0   1.
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it
( = 1).
Kirchhoff’s law: The emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface at a given temperature
and wavelength are equal.

The absorption of radiation incident on

an opaque surface of absorptivity . 38
The Surface Energy Balance

A special case for which no volume or mass is encompassed by the control surface.

Conservation of Energy (Instant in Time):

Ein  Eout 0

  qconv
qcond   qrad
 0

T1  T2
k
L
 
 h T2  T    2 T24  Tsur
4
0
Under steady conditions, the net rate of energy transfer to a fluid in a control
volume is equal to the rate of increase in the energy of the fluid stream
flowing through the control volume.

˙ 𝒄𝒑 ( 𝑻 𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝑻 𝒊𝒏 )
𝒒=𝒎

the mass flow rate of a fluid flowing in a pipe or duct