Energy Environment and Climate

Change

CE 1101N
Module-2
Module-2
Different forms of energy, Energy demand and supply, Energy reserve and
resources, Future demand of energy on environment and ecology, Necessity for
sustainability of clean energy sources.
Module-3
Fossil fuels and conventional energy sources – coal, oil and natural gas extraction
methods
Module- 4
Renewable energy technologies, Solar energy , Wind energy, Biomass energy,
Geothermal energy, Small hydro energy, Ocean-tidal-wave energy
 INTRODUCTION

• Access to energy has become a fundamental necessity, serving as the backbone of economic
development, technological progress, and improved quality of life.

• Reliable electricity is essential not only for the commercial and industrial (C&I) sectors but also for
meeting the daily needs of households in both urban and rural regions. Although the Government of India
officially declared in 2019 that all villages had been electrified, the ground reality in 2025 reveals that a
significant portion of rural households still lack dependable and quality access to electricity.

• In many parts of the country—particularly in remote, hilly, and northeastern regions—the power supply is
often irregular, characterized by low voltage and limited availability, sometimes restricted to just 8–10
hours per day.
• Recent national surveys and independent research studies estimate that nearly 40–50 million people in
rural India continue to face unreliable electricity supply. This persistent challenge underscores the urgent
need for alternative, sustainable, and decentralized energy solutions.
• So, the focus has increasingly shifted toward renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, biogas,
geothermal, hydro and ocean based power generation. These technologies promote environmental
sustainability.
 OVERVIEW AND PRESENT SCENARIO OF POWER SYSTEM IN INDIA
India's power system is undergoing a major transformation aimed at providing clean, reliable, and
affordable electricity to all. With over 420 GW of installed capacity (as of early 2025), India is the third-
largest producer and consumer of electricity in the world.
Installed Capacity Overview

As of 2025, India’s installed power generation capacity is approximately 420 GW, with the following
distribution: Source Capacity (GW) Share
(%)
Coal (Thermal) ~202 48%
Renewable Energy (Solar, ~125 30%
Wind)
Hydro (Large + Small) ~47 11%
Nuclear ~13 3%
Natural Gas, Diesel ~33 8%
India aims to reach 500 GW of non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030 as part of its climate goals.
Electricity Consumption and Demand Trends
Peak Demand (2024–25): Exceeded 250 GW, driven by increased air-conditioning, industry, and
electric vehicles.
Per Capita Electricity Consumption: ~1,200 kWh/year (still below the global average of
~3,500 kWh).
  Demand-Side Distribution:
o Industrial: ~40%
o Residential: ~25%
o Agriculture: ~18%
o Commercial and others: ~17%

Renewable Energy Progress

Solar Power: Installed capacity crossed 75 GW.

Wind Energy: Installed capacity around 45 GW.
Targets for 2030:
o 280 GW Solar,
o 140 GW Wind,
o 10 GW Biomass,
o 15 GW Hydro.

Large-scale projects include floating solar plants, offshore wind farms, and solar parks under MNRE
(Ministry of New and Renewable Energy).

Ref: [Link]
[Link]
  Global trend of electricity generation
trend from 2015 to 2027 predicts
electricity generation by renewable
energy (22.8% to 38.1%) is increasing
and using coal (39.4% to 29.7%) and
oil (4.2% to 1.5%) it is decreasing.

Global trend of electricity generation

using different technology
 Global trend of the cumulative power
capacity by different technology from
2010 to 2027 predicts the energy Global trend of cumulative power capacity
generation by solar PV technology is using different technology
increasing rapidly from 0.8 % to 22.2%
[1] IEA, Global electricity generation by technology, 2015, 2021 and 2027, IEA, Paris
[Link] and statistics/charts/global electricity-generation-by-technology-2015- 2021-and-
2027
[2] IEA, Share of cumulative power capacity by technology, 2010-2027, IEA, Paris [Link]
and statistics/charts/share-of-cumulative-power-capacity-by-technology- 2010-2027
 Contribution of different sources of power generation.

• Fossil fuel-based energy sources hold the top position regarding the deployed power-
generating units. The rapid and consistent extraction of fossil fuels is responsible for the
deterioration of its reserve capacity.
• Using fossil fuels as energy sources increases the carbon footprint, which is
undoubtedly a well-recognized and well-talked challenge of the 21st century.
• Renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, geothermal, hydro (on small and large
scales), ocean energy, fuel cells, and green hydrogen may pave the way to perceiving
low carbon emissions worldwide without compromising the growing living standard.
 Electricity demand worldwide (Source: Ember Electricity Data Explorer, ember-
[Link])
• A continuous improvement in the standard of living demands high energy consumption,
especially electrical energy consumption, the most convenient form of energy used to
cater to day-to-day activities.
•According to the report, in 2023, the global electricity demand of the whole world
climbed to 29,471 TWh
 Electricity generation by different sources (Source: Ember Electricity Data Explorer,
[Link])

• Steady uptrend is observed and predicted in the production of electricity by the

renewable energy sources as depicted in figure.
• Among the numerous renewable energy sources, solar energy is considered as one
of the most effective energy sources as it can provide adequate power output without
damaging the environment in a significant way. The energy incident from the Sun, the
most predominant source of energy,on the earth crust in one hour is higher than the
worldwide annual energy consumption
 Global cumulative installed capacity technology-wise, 2010-2027 [2]
• The total installed capacity of Photovoltaic (PV) is 1046.62 GW in 2022, which is almost 31%
of total renewable energy [1] capacity in global market. The cumulative PV capacity may grow to
1500 GW by 2022-2027 [2].
• Technology-wise installed power generation capacity in world scenario is shown in figure for
actual data of 2010 to 2021 and predicted for 2021-2027. Bioenergy generation is shown to
have the lowest growth rate, whereas solar PV leads the way. Wind energy generation is also
growing slowly, whereas hydropower, coal and natural gas maintain their position. Therefore,
further investigation and study are needed into the technologies used to generate wind energy
and bioenergy. In contrast, installation of solar PV should be enhanced at a large pace, along
with achieving technological maturity.
[1] Renewable capacity statistics 2023 by International renewable energy agency (IRENA), [Link]
[2] Renewables 2022 Analysis and Forecast to 2027, IEA report, [Link]
 Global Installed capacity [1]

• Figure shows the global installed electricity capacity of different types of sources
as on 2021 which is 8012.98 GW. Out of that, 10.65% is from solar photovoltaics.

[1] [Link]
 Global energy share [1]
• The global generated energy share for 2021 and shows that solar PV contributed just 3.7% of the overall
energy generated. Thus, for 2021, the global situation is that solar PV is 10.65% (853 GW) of the total
installed capacity (including fossil fuel) of electricity, 8010.42 GW. But the PV generation share is only 3.7% of
total energy generation of 28003 TWh (from all the sources) [1]. PV capacity grows upto 12.3% and its
contribution in energy generation increases upto 4.5% in 2022 in world market [2], [3].

[1] [Link]
[2] [Link]
[3] [Link]
 Total installed capacity (GW): Indian scenario

• In the Indian scenario, the installation of renewable resources amounts to be

29.53% (as on January 2023) [Ref] in which more than 50% comes from solar PV
applications. Figure illustrates that it is just 15.52% of the entire capacity that is
installed.

[Ref] Broad Overview of Monthly Renewable Energy Generation, Central Electricity Authority (CEA), January
2023, [Link]
 One Billion Units is equivalent to one
terawatt-hour (TWh)

• From the energy generation point

of view, according to the figure
fossil fuel sources share 73.43%
whereas, that from solar PV
sources it is 48.13% of renewable
generation and only 6.04% of as a
whole energy output from all
sources.

Total generation share (BU): Indian scenario

• Considering the installed Photovoltaic capacity in India (63.89 GW as on 31.01.2023), the
expected generation comes out to be 117 BU per year taking an average generation of
5kWh/kW/day. But the actual generation is seen to be only 82 BU which is 70% of the expected
generation. The worldwide situation has likewise shown a similar outcome. It should be noted
that Indian cities have extraordinarily high pollution levels, according to the World Air Quality
Report issued by the Swiss company IQAir [ref].
[ref] [Link]
In the beginning of the twenty-first century, our society is faced with an
energy challenge: as highly populous, developing countries become more
affluent and as the developed nations continue to increase their energy
consumption, the energy demand in the entire world has reached levels that
cannot be sustained in the future.

At the same time, fossil fuels, which are currently providing more than
85% of the total global energy supply, are limited and, in addition, their
widespread use has significant adverse environmental consequences. The
combustion of fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide, which is one of the
causes of global warming as well as of other environmental effects, such as
acid rain; higher ozone concentration in urban areas; particulates; and
aerosols that are detrimental to air quality.

The limited supply of the fossil fuels and their effects on the global
environment indicate the only long-term solution of the energy challenge: a
significant increase in the use of alternative energy sources for the
production of electricity as well as for meeting other energy needs of the
industrial and post-industrial human society.
 Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic
development of the country.
Energy can be classified into several types based on the
following criteria.
 Primary and secondary energy
 Commercial and Non commercial energy
 Renewable and Non-Renewable energy
Primary energy sources are those that are either found or
stored in nature e.g. Coal, oil, natural gas, biomass (such as
wood). Primary energy sources are mostly converted in
industrial utilities into secondary energy sources e.g. Coal,
oil or gas converted into steam and electricity.
Commercial Energy sources are available in the market
for a definite price e.g. electricity, coal, oil, natural gas etc.
 Non-commercial energy sources are not available in the
commercial market for a price e.g. firewood, agro waste in
rural areas; solar energy for water heating, electricity
generation for drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for
transport; lifting water for irrigation; crushing sugarcane;
wind energy for lifting water and electricity generation.
• Renewable energy is obtained from sources that are essential
inexhaustible on a human time scale e.g. wind power, solar
power, geothermal energy, tidal power and hydroelectric
power. This type of energy can be harnessed without the
release of harmful pollutants. Non-renewable energy is the
conventional fossil fuels e.g. coal, oil and natural gas. These
energy sources deplete with time.
Energy distribution between developed and developing
countries
• Everything we do depends on energy. Energy resources of a country are a key
input in economic growth and the availability of energy resources is very
closely linked to the future growth of our nation.
• India is the world’s third largest energy consumer, and its energy use is
projected to grow at a rapid pace supported by economic development,
urbanisation, improved electricity access and an expanding manufacturing
base.
• High standards of living in the developed countries are attributable to high
energy consumption levels.
• The rapid population growth in the developing countries kept the per capita
energy consumption low compared with that of highly industrialized developed
countries.
• The world average energy consumption per person is equivalent to 2.2 tonnes
of coal.
• In industrialized countries, people use four to five times more energy than the
world average energy consumption and nine time more than the average for the
developing countries.
 Energy resources
• In terms of widespread use we can classify energy resources as conventional and non-
conventional energy resources.
•Conventional Sources: coal, petroleum, natural gas and hydel power
•Non-conventional Sources: Solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, nuclear and biogas
 Historical and projected World Energy Supply
and Demand

20 1 million barrel of oil equivalent (boe) = 2x 109 kWh

 All forms of traditional energy cause
environmental and ecological damages.
21
All natural sources are fast depleting and they are
also the largest polluter of the environment

The carbon
stored in fossil
fuels is released
as carbon
dioxide when
they are burnt

– leads to the green house effect and global warming

22
 List of major countries by carbon
dioxide emissions
CO2 emissions Emission per
Country
(killoton) capita (ton)
World 35,669,000 5.0
China 10,540,000 7.6
United States 5,334,000 16.5
European Union 3,415,000 6.7
India 2,341,000 1.8
Russia 1,766,000 12.4
Japan 1,278,000 10.1
Germany 767,000 9.3
Nuclear Resources:

• India has modest reserves of Uranium, mostly located at

Jadugoda, Jharkhand.
• Other locations are Narora (UP), Rawatbhatta
(Rajasthan), Kakrapar (Gujrat), Kaiga (Karnataka),
Kalpakkam, Kudanulam and Tombay.
• Thorium is abundance in India in the form of Monazite
(ore) in sand in the beaches of Kerala.
• Outside India in United States, UK, France, Japan,
Germany and Russia.
• In 2009 there were 439 operating nuclear power plants
in the world, 103 of which operated in the USA.
Nuclear Waste
• The transportation and storage of the waste materials produced in
the nuclear power plants around the world is a significant global
environmental threat because the uncontrolled release of radioactive
compounds is harmful to all living animals on the planet.
• Heat in a nuclear power plant is typically produced by the fission of
the nuclear fuel, primarily uranium-235 and plutonium-239. The
fission of the radioactive materials produces other isotopes, some of
which are radioactive.
• Nuclear wastes are sometimes radioactive and causes health threat
to the human population. For this reason permanent storage facilities
must be constructed that will be capable to store the radioactive
waste.
• There is not a proven and reliable method for the storage of such
materials during the thousands or tens of thousands of years required
for remediation of the nuclear waste materials.
• The safe and permanent storage of nuclear waste is an environmental
issue for the nuclear industry. However, the populations and
governments of several countries, including the USA, have not
prepared permanent storage facilities for the nuclear waste that has
been produced since the 1950s.
• At present, the nuclear waste is typically stored in temporary
facilities in the vicinity of the power plant that produced the waste. A
typical temporary storage facility is a water pool, where the nuclear
waste is immersed. These storage arrangements are temporary, mostly
unsecured .
• At present, there is no known storage material of the nuclear waste
for long periods of time. For this reason, the nuclear waste
management processes is still a challenge.
 Renewable Energy
 SOLAR ENERGY

 WIND ENERGY

 BIOMASS ENERGY

 GEOTHERMAL, TIDAL Etc

 Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission

 Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission is one of the

major global initiatives in promotion of solar energy
technologies, announced by the Government of India
under National Action Plan on Climate Change.
 Mission aims Large scale utilization and rapid
diffusion and deployment of solar technologies across
the country at a scale which leads to cost reduction
- R&D
- Local manufacturing and support
infrastructure
Design of Microgrid
As a part of these motivations, a microgrid system has been
set up within the IIEST Shibpur campus consisting of,

 35 cubic meter biogas digester with 15kVA biogas

generator,
 10kWp solar PV,
 1kW wind generator,
 1kW 6hr vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) storage,
 500 m underground LT distribution line connected to the
IIESTS loads
 communication system between the Renewable Energy
Sources by connecting the specific nodes to National
Instrument’s LabVIEW platform.
Microgrids are small-scale power grids with its own power-generating resources,
such as solar panels, wind turbines, and energy storage, that can operate
independently to generate electricity for a localized area, such as a university,
hospital or community.
 Selection of Sub Systems of
Microgrid
Bio energy based power plant:
[Link] gasification based plant – The fuel (e.g. Wood chips, rice husk
etc.) is difficult to collect in regular basis.
[Link] methanization based plant - By creating biogas reactors on campus,
kitchen waste (food waste, vegetable waste etc.) is to be collected from
different block of the Institute and will be used to produce methane gas for
heat as well as power generation.

Calculation:
1.1 cubic meter gas = 25kg of
food waste
[Link] waste collected /day =
700kg
[Link] of bio digester = 36 cubic
meter
 Selection of Sub Systems of Microgrid
The solar radiation incident over the site is
equal to average 4kWh per square meter
per day with an annual radiation ranging
from 1500-1600 kWh per square meter.
Based on the irradiance level and
matching with the biogas system a 10
kWp solar PV plant has been installed.

The wind resource for power generation

in this eastern region of the country does
not show significant potential. To study
the wind pattern in this region a 1kW
wind generator has been installed as
part of the microgrid system though
power generated from this wind
generator does not impact significantly
 Selection of Sub Systems of
Microgrid
A battery bank is also connected with the microgrid system in addition to
the aforesaid system. A special type of battery technology is the redox
flow battery (RFB) storage. In our case vanadium redox flow battery was
selected as it exhibits some commendable merits over other type of
battery available in the market such as independent scalability of power
and energy capacity, very long life cycle (7500+ which is equivalent to 20
years), deep discharge capacity, reliability for long term discharging
capacity and also cost effectiveness.
Selection of Sub Systems of
Microgrid
Solar Radiation Resource Assessment (SRRA)
Shaded
Pyranometer Shading Disc
(DHI) Assembly
Pyrheliometer
Solar Tracker
Pyranometer
(GHI)

1.5m Solar Tower

SRRA
The meteorological data such as solar irradiance, wind speed etc.
are collected from the Solar Radiation Resource Assessment
(SRRA) station located in IIEST campus.

SRRA station at IIEST campus

Solar Power Plant and Wind Generator

10 KWp Solar PV Array on IIEST rooftop , ACDB and String Inveter

Solar Power Plant and Wind Generator

Installation of 1kW Wind Generator on IIEST Rooftop

Biogas Generator
The size of the Biogas Generator was selected on the basis of the
capacity of the Biogas Digester needed for utilizing the total
kitchen wastes, table food wastes and other Biodegradable
wastes inside the IIESTS Campus which is approx 800 kg to 1 ton
per day. The capacity of the Biogas Digester needed was 35
Cubic meter and the corresponding size of the Biogas Generator
was 15 KVA. Fig shows the installed Biogas Digester along with
the accessories for processing the daily kitchen wastes inputs and
also shows the Biogas Generator installed in IIESTS.

The Integrated ac output of the Solar and Wind Generator from

the Roof top Control room is brought via underground cable tray to
the Master Control panel of the Microgrid System located near the
Biogas Generator.
Biogas Generator

35Cum Biogas Digester with Vibrators, Shredders

And 15 KVA Biogas Engine housed in MicroGrid Centre at IIEST
Vanadium Redox Flow Battery Storage

Vanadium Redox Flow Battery

Figure below shows the irradiance profile of three seasons e.g.
winter, summer and monsoon. The generation from 10kWp solar
plant also indicated. The maximum instantaneous power
received from the plant in summer which is nearly 8.5kWp and
the minimum is in monsoon which is nearly 0kWp.

Seasonal average irradiance profile at Kolkata, West Bengal and power

output from 10kW inverter
The wind profile obtained from SRRA station and figure
indicates the power output from 1kW wind generator. The
yearly average data shows that the maximum power which can
be obtained from the wind generator is nearly 300W and it is
also noticed that the maximum power is obtained mainly before
and after sunset.

Yearly average wind profile at Kolkata, West Bengal and power output
from 1kW wind turbine
Figure below indicates the biogas engine I/P – O/P relationship i.e.
inlet gas consumption Vs generator output power and table indicates
the relationship between seasonal yield of biodegradable waste and
gas generation.

Biogas engine I/P – O/P

Table Biogas Engine I/P-O/P data

 .a Combined PV-wind generation in monsoon season

b. Combined PV-wind generation against .[Link] PV-wind generation

load for summer against load for winter
Capacity Estimation
Solar PV – 10.6kWp
Wind – 1.2kW
Biogas – 12kW
Battery – 1kW/6kWh
Comments on Comparisons
 Nuclear: can operate at high capacity factor.
- major water cooling requirement

 Wind: Must operate at a much lower capacity factor …… maybe 30%,

and maximum penetration into grid of about 20%.
- Takes little land area out of ‘production’
- Requires no water cooling

 Solar: Seasonal, intermittent and diurnal variations. Must also operate at

much lower capacity factor.
- covers ‘much’ of the land area, but land of low
productivity.
- area could be rooftops, distributed generation (good)
- no water cooling required if PV
• What’s needed …… cheap storage !!!
 What is Sustainable Energy and Why Do We Need It?

•Fossil fuels (e.g. coal, natural gas and oil) are not only harmful when burned
for energy and causes global warming. These are not sustainable as resources
are finite. One day the world will run out of fossil fuels. Sustainability refers to
the concept that all people can meet their basic needs infinitely, without
compromising future generations.

• What is sustainable energy?

Sustainable energy includes any energy source that cannot be depleted. It
does not need to be renewed or replenished. Sustainable energy meets our
demand for energy.
Sustainable energy doesn’t harm the environment. The energy sources
themselves are free but there is a cost associated for capturing sustainable
energy.

• Examples of sustainable energy sources are wind, solar and water

(hydropower). All these are inexhaustible and widely available to almost
everyone. Geothermal energy can also be included as a sustainable alternative
energy source. Geothermal energy creates usable energy from the planet’s
internal energy sources, such as geysers.
What is the difference between sustainable and renewable energy?

• People often use the terms “sustainable” and “renewable” interchangeably. However,
there is a difference between the two: the possibility of replenishment.

• Sustainable energies are theoretically inexhaustible. It cannot be depleted because

sustainable energy sources don’t need to be replenished. For example, think of the sun
or wind. Neither resource needs to be created or replaced. On the other hand,
renewable energy is theoretically exhaustible — it uses resources from the earth that
can naturally be replenished, such as crops and biomatter. A renewable energy source
like bioenergy uses biological masses (e.g. agricultural byproducts like straw and
manure) to create energy. Another example of bioenergy is ethanol, which is made from
sugarcane and corn. Since these crops can be planted and farmed to generate more
energy, it’s a type of renewable energy.