Energy Environment and Climate

Change

CE 1101N
Module-4_Solar Energy
 Solar Energy

Sun and its Source of Energy

Nature of the solar resource : The sun

The source of all power on the earth

radiates at about 5,777º K
(Blackbody equivalent)
 The Sun

 A sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter

 Consist of H, He, O, C, Ne, Fe…

Surface temperature: 5,800K

Core temperature:13,600,000K
 The Sun generates a large amount of energy due to a
continuous thermonuclear fusion reaction occurring
in its interior.

 In this interaction Hydrogen combine to form Helium

and the excess energy is released in the form of
electromagnetic radiation.
Two nuclei combine into one nucleus plus a nucleon
is called nuclear fusion, a nuclear reaction.

Stars are giant fusion reactors.

Nuclear fusion reactions provide energy in the
Sun and other stars. Solar energy drives the
weather and makes plants grow.
Energy stored in plants sustains animal lives, ours
included.
 Variation in Solar Radiation

The amount of insolation that reaches the earth is consistently the

same amount. However, any given location on the earth’s surface
will receive varying amounts due to the tilt, rotation and revolution
of the earth, as well as cloud cover and particulate matter in the
atmosphere. The time of day, season, latitude, and daily weather
patterns all affect the amount of available solar energy in a
particular location.
Fusion in Sun : Source of Energy
Fusion in Sun : Source of Energy
Fusion in Sun : Source of Energy

an isotope of
helium
Fusion in Sun : Source of Energy

helium isotope
nuclei
 Sun : a powerful fusion reactor
The temperature inside the Sun is so
high that electrons have all been
stripped from their atomic nuclei.

The principal nuclear reactions

inside the Sun convert hydrogen
into helium in three stages.
Because this chain of reactions
starts with two hydrogen nuclei
-- that is, two single protons -- it
is called the proton-proton chain.
 Solar Energy Production

The net result is

6 1H + 2 e --> 4He + 2 1H + 2 neutrinos + 6 photons
or
4 1H + 2 e --> 4He + 2 neutrinos + 6 photons

The net energy release is 26 MeV! How?

 Energy of fusing hydrogen to helium

4(1H) ⇒ 4He + 2 e+ + 2 neutrinos + energy

Energy per fusion reaction

The energy comes from the difference in the mass of the 4 hydrogen atom
and the resulting helium atom through Einstein's famous equation:
E=mc2.
[Note that the masses of the 2 e+ and the 2 neutrinos are so small
compared to the masses of hydrogen and helium that we can neglect
them from this simple calculation.]
To make this calculation, you'll need the following:
Mass of a hydrogen atom, mH = 1.673 × 10-27 kg

Mass of a helium atom, mHe = 6.645 × 10-27 kg

Speed of light, c = 2.998 × 108 m/s
 Energy released in each fusion reaction

Solution :
Mass difference: Energy released in each fusion reaction:

mH = 1.673 × 10-27 kg
E =mc2
mHe = 6.645 × 10-27 kg
=(Δ m) × c2

Δ m=(4 × mH) - mHe

=4.7 × 10-29 kg × (108 m/s)2
=4.224 × 10-12 kg m2/s2
= 4.7 × 10-29 kg
=4.224 × 10-12 J
= 26 MeV
1 MeV = 1.6 x 10-13 J

4(1H) ⇒ 4He + 2 e+ + 2 neutrinos + energy

Sun’s Structure
Main Regions of the Sun
The sun is a hot sphere of gas whose internal temperatures reach over 20
million degrees kelvin due to nuclear fusion reactions at the sun's core
which convert hydrogen to helium.

The surface of the

sun, called the
photosphere, is at
a temperature of
about 6000K
 Core of the Sun

The core of the Sun is considered to extend from the

center to about 0.2 to 0.25 solar radius.

It is the hottest part of the Sun and of the Solar System. It

has a density of 150 g/cm³ (150 times the density of liquid
water) at the center, and a temperature of close to
15,700,000 kelvin,

The core is made of hot, dense gas in the plasmic state,

 Sun’s radiative zone

The Sun's radiative zone is the section of the solar interior

between the innermost core and the outer convective zone. In
the radiative zone, energy generated by nuclear fusion in the
core moves outward as electromagnetic radiation. In other
words, the energy is conveyed by photons.

Sun’s convective zone

When the energy reaches the top of the radiative zone, it

begins to move in a different fashion in the convective
zone. In the convective zone, heat and energy are carried
outward along with matter in swirling flows called
convection cells. This motion is similar to the roiling flows
seen in a pot of boiling water.
 Sun’s photosphere

The lowest layer of the sun's atmosphere is the photosphere. It is about 300
miles (500 kilometers) thick. This layer is where the sun's energy is released
as light. Because of the distance from the sun to Earth, light reaches our
planet in about eight minutes.

Sun’s chromosphere
The next layer is the chromosphere. The chromosphere emits a reddish glow
as super-heated hydrogen burns off. But the red rim can only be seen during
a total solar eclipse. At other times, light from the chromosphere is usually
too weak to be seen against the brighter photosphere.
 Sunspots: (Photo of the Sun taken on Jan. 17, 2005)

Sunspots are regions with high magnetic fields (1000 x

higher magnetic field than average!)

Typical size of spots is similar to the size of the Earth.

These regions are cooler than average, so they look
darker than the surrounding hotter region.
Photosphere: Temperature decreases outwards.
At bottom: T = 6400 K , At top: T = 4000 K
Chromosphere: Temperature increases outwards. At top: T = 10,000 K
Transition Zone: Temperature shoots up to near 1 million K
Corona: Temperatures increase to about 2 million K
The source of this heat is not well understood. Current theories suggest that
magnetic waves might transport energy from the convective zone to the
corona.
 solar wind.

The constant flow of ionized gas away from the corona is

called the solar wind. Every second, a million tons of gas
flows away from the Sun

During the Sun's lifetime, so great is the mass of the Sun,

the mass loss from the solar wind has been negligibly
small. (It takes about 200 million years to lose the
equivalent of the Earth's mass -- and it takes 330,000
Earths to equal the Sun.)
 The Sun has a diameter of
d(km) = 1.39 x 106 km

The Sun is at a distance of

D(km) = 1.49 x 108 km
From the Earth

Question: what is the Sun’s angular diameter

As seen from the earth?

d
 (in radian ) 
D
 Sun Fact Sheet
The Sun is a normal star, one of more than 100 billion stars in
our galaxy.

Diameter: 1,390,000 km (Earth 12,742 km or nearly 100 times

smaller)
Mass: 1.1989 x 1030 kg (333,000 times Earth’s mass)

Temperature: 5800 K (surface) 15,600,000 K (core)

The Sun contains more than 99.8% of the total mass of the
Solar System (Jupiter contains most of the rest).

Chemical composition:
Hydrogen 92.1% , Helium 7.8%
Rest of the other 90 naturally occurring elements: 0.1%
 The Light Year
Definition:

The distance traveled by a light ray in one year

1 light year = speed of light x number of seconds

in a year

= 3 x108 x 365.25 x 24 x 60 x 60 (meters)

= 9.46 x 1015 meters

 The Sun again….
Distance to the Sun
from Earth is about
150 million kilometers
(150 billion meters)

Hence:
Light travel time from Sun to Earth
= 150 x 109 / 3 x 108 - seconds
= 500 seconds = 8.3 - minutes
The Sun is 8.3 light minutes away from Earth

The nearest star to the Sun (Proxima Centauri) is 4.243

light years away
Implication: space is very big and mostly empty
 1 AU

Definition:

The Astronomical Unit (AU) is the average

distance between the Earth and the Sun

1 AU = 1.496 x 108 km
Sun - Earth relative size and distance of separation
Characteristics of solar radiation
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The limitations of the human

eye!
Solar Radiation Spectrum
 Solar Constant
 Amount of incoming solar radiation per unit area incident on a
plane perpendicular to the rays.
 At a distance of one 1AU from the sun (roughly the mean
distance from the Sun to the Earth).
 Includes a range of wavelength (not just the visible light).

Solar Constant
Entry point into atmosphere
Intensity ~ 1350W/m2
 Earth’s Atmosphere

1. WhatBlue
is it?
sky!

Today’s atmosphere: nitrogen (78%), oxygen

(21%), other (1%) – trace gases!
2.
Nitrogen, oxygen, argon, water vapor,
Composition
carbon dioxide, methane, and most other
gases
are invisible.
Clouds are not gas, but condensed
vapor
in the form of liquid droplets or ice
Ground based smog, which is visible,
particles.
contains reactants of nitrogen and
ozone.
Four
3. layers:
Structure
Troposphere From surface to 8-18
km
Stratospher From troposphere top to 50
e km
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
 The Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere

1. Four layers defined

by
temperatur
e
TTroposphere:
decreases
Stratosphere:
T increases
with
Mesosphere:
with
T
elevation
Thermosphere:
elevation
decreases
T
with
increases
elevation
with
elevation
Troposphere:
80% of Earth’s gases
Most of Earth’s weather
happens

Stratosphere:
19.9% of Earth’s gases

Ozone layer:
Blocking Sun’s ultraviolet
radiation
Solar Radiation Budget (to Earth)
 Energy from the Sun
1. Characteristics

Travels through space

(vacuum)
in a speed of light
In the form of waves:
Electromagnetic waves
In stream of particles(Photons)
Releases
heat when
absorbed
2. Electromagnetic spectrum

From short wavelength, high

energy, gamma rays to long
wavelength, low energy, radio
waves
3. Importance to climate and
climate change
Primary driving force of Earth’s climate
engine
Ultraviolet, Visible, Infrared
 Advantages of solar Energy

All chemical and radioactive polluting byproducts of

the thermonuclear reactions remain behind on the sun,
while only pure radiant energy reaches the Earth.
Energy reaching the earth is incredible. It has been
calculated that 30 days of sunshine striking the Earth
have the energy equivalent of the total of all the fossil
fuels, both used and unused!
Economic
• After the initial investment has been recovered, the energy from the
sun is practically FREE.
• Financial incentives are available form the government that will
reduce the cost.
Environment friendly
• It is not affected by the supply and demand of fuel and is
therefore not subjected to the ever-increasing price of gasoline.
• Solar Energy is clean, renewable (unlike gas, oil and coal),
sustainable and helping to protect our environment.
• It does no pollute air. Therefore Solar Energy does not contribute to
global warming, acid rain or smog. It actively contributes to the
decrease of harmful green house gas emissions.
• By not using any fuel, Solar Energy does not contribute to the cost
and problems of the recovery and transportation of fuel or the
storage of radioactive waste.
Low/ no maintenance
• Solar Energy systems are virtually maintenance free and
will last for decades.
• Once installed, there are no recurring costs. They operate
silently, have no moving parts, do not release offensive smells.
• More solar panels can easily be added in the future if needed.
 Disadvantages of solar Energy
• The initial cost is the main disadvantage of installing a solar
energy system, largely because of the high cost of the semi-
conducting materials used in building one.
• The cost of solar energy is also high compared to non-
renewable utility-supplied electricity.
• Solar panels require quite a large area for installation to
achieve a good level of efficiency.
• Sun does not shine consistently. The efficiency of the system
also relies on the location of the sun. Solar energy is a diffuse
source. To harness it, we must concentrate it into an amount
and form that we can use, such as heat and electricity. The
production of solar energy is influenced by the presence
of clouds or pollution in the air. Similarly, no solar energy
will be produced during nighttime although a battery backup
system will solve this problem. All these problems can be
overcome by taking care of the following:
1) collection, 2) conversion, 3) storage. .
• As far as solar powered cars go - their slower speed might
not appeal to everyone caught up in today's rat race.
Major Uses of Solar Energy

oDaylight
oDrying Agricultural
Products
oSpace Heating
oHeating Water
oGenerating Electrical
Power
oConcentrating Solar
There are two types of solar energy:
Thermal Energy & Electric
Energy

Thermal Energy: Thermal Energy is

everywhere. It’s lights up our days. It heats
the earth, our bodies and our homes. It dries
our clothes . All for free!
Electric Energy: Electric Energy uses the
power of the sun to produce electricity
through solar cells, which is known as
Photovoltaics (PV).
Solar Thermal
Swimming Pool Heating
Solar Cooking
Space Heating
Solar Hot Water
Solar Cooling
Ocean Thermal
Solar Thermal
Photovoltaics (PV)

How PV
cells
work?
Photovoltaics
 Photo+voltaic = convert light to electricity
 How does it work

The heart of a photovoltaic system is a solid-state

device called a solar cell.
 p-n Junction (p-n diode)
Solar Cells
Light-emitting Diodes
Diode Lasers
Photodetectors
Transistors

 A p-n junction is the basic device component for many

functional electronic devices listed above.
 Working
principle of
Solar panel
1)1) Sunlight
Sunlight hit hit panel
the solar the solar panel
(photovoltaic/
(photovoltaic/ PV) and absorbed by semi-
PV) and absorbed
conducting by such
materials semi-conducting
as silicon
materials such as silicone.
2)2) Electrons
Electronsare
areknocked
knockedloose
loosefrom
fromtheir
their
atoms,
atoms, which allow them to flow throughthe
which allow them to flow through the
material to produce electricity. This process
ismaterial to photovoltaic
called the produce electricity. This process
(PV) effect.
is called the photovoltaic (PV) effect.
3)3) An
Anarray
arrayofofsolar
solarpanels
panelsconverts
convertssolar
solar
energy
energyinto
intoDCDC(direct
(directcurrent)
current)electricity.
electricity.
4)4) The
TheDC
DCelectricity
electricityenters
entersan
aninverter.
inverter.
5)5) The
Theinverter
inverterturns
turnsDC
DCelectricity
electricityinto
into120-volt
120-volt
AC
AC(alternating
(alternatingcurrent)
current)
6)6) The
TheAC
ACpower
powerenters
entersthe
theutility
utilitypanel
panelininthe
the
house.
house.
7)7) The
Theelectricity
electricity(load)
(load)isisthen
thendistributed
distributedtoto
appliances or lights in the house.
appliances or lights in the house.

Cont’d
 Working principle of Solar panel
8)8) When
Whenmore
moresolar
solarenergy
energyisisgenerated
generatedititcan
canbe
be
stored in a battery as DC electricity and will
stored intoa supply
continue batteryour
as DC electricity
home and will in
with electricity
continue
the event ofto asupply
poweryour homeorwith
blackout electricity in
at nighttime.
the event of a power blackout or at nighttime.

9)9) When
Whenthe thebattery
batteryisisfull
fullthe
theexcess
excesselectricity
electricitycan
can
be exported back into the utility grid, if the
be exported
system back into
is connected the utility grid, if your
to it.
system is connected to it.
10) Utility supplied electricity can also be drawn
10) form
Utility supplied electricity can also be drawn form
thegrid
the gridwhen
whennotnotenough
enoughsolar
solarenergy
energyisis
produce
produced
d
11)
11)TheTheflow
flowofofelectricity
electricityininand
andout
outofofthe
the utility grid
utilityisgrid
measured by a utility meter, which spins
isbackwards
measured (when you are
by a utility producing
meter, more energy
which spins
that you need)
backwards (when and
weforward (when you
are producing more require
energy
additional electricity from the utility
that our need) and forward (when we require company).
The two are
additional offset ensuring
electricity from thethat youcompany).
utility only pay for
the additional energy you use from the utility
company. This system is referred to as "net-
metering"
. Cont’d
Cells, Modules and Arrays
Typical PV Systems
Main Application Areas – Off-grid

Space

Water Telecom
Pumping

Solar Home Systems

Main Application Areas Grid Connected

Commercial Building
Systems (50 kW)

Residential Home PV Power Plants

Systems (2-8 kW) ( > 100 kW)
Fundamentals of Solar Cell:
Absorption of light:
• Photons incident on the surface of a semiconductor will
1. either reflected from the top surface
2. will be absorbed in the material
failing either of the above two processes, will be transmitted
through the material.
• In photovoltaic devices, reflection and transmission are
typically considered loss mechanisms as photons which are
not absorbed do not generate power.
• If the photon is absorbed it has the possibility of exciting
an electron from the valence band to the conduction band.
• A key factor in determining if a photon is absorbed or
transmitted is the energy of the photon.
Photons falling onto a semiconductor material can be
divided into three groups based on their energy compared to
that of the semiconductor band gap:
• Eph < EG Photons with energy Eph less than the band gap
energy EG interact weakly with the semiconductor, passing
through it as if it were transparent.
• Eph = EG have just enough energy to create an electron hole
pair and are efficiently absorbed.
• Eph > EG Photons with energy much greater than the band
gap are strongly absorbed. However, for photovoltaic
applications, the photon energy greater than the band gap
is wasted as electrons quickly thermalize back down to the
conduction band edges.
Absorption Coefficient:
The absorption coefficient determines how
far into a material light of a particular
wavelength can penetrate before it is
absorbed.
Low absorption coefficient means light is
poorly absorbed in the material.
Absorption coefficient depends on the
(i) material
(ii) the wavelength of light which gets
absorbed.
Absorption Depth
 This gives the distance into the material at which
the light drops to about 36% of its original
intensity i.e dropped by a factor of 1/e.
 High energy light (short wavelength), such as
blue light, has a large absorption coefficient that
means it is absorbed in a short distance.
 Low energy light i.e long wavelength e.g red light
is absorbed less strongly.
 So in the design of solar cell, the thickness of the
semiconductor is important.

• Neglecting reflection, the amount of light which

is absorbed by a material depends on the
absorption coefficient (α in cm-1) and the
thickness of the absorbing material.
Generation Rate
 The generation rate gives the number of
electrons generated at each point in the
device due to the absorption of photons.

where N0 = photon flux at the surface

(photons/unit-area/sec.)
α = absorption coefficient; and
x = distance into the material
• This equation shows that the light intensity
exponentially decreases throughout the material.
The generation is highest at the surface of the
material.
Recombination
Carrier recombination mechanism in a
semiconductor

• Any electron which is in the conduction band is in

metastable state. It stabilizes when it comes to
the valence band i.e lower energy position.
When the electron stabililizes back down into the
valence band it efficiently removes a hole . This
process is known as recombination.
Lifetime
• Minority carrier lifetime of a material is the
average time which a carrier can spend in
an excited state after electron-hole
generation before it recombines.
• The lifetime is related to the
recombination rate by:

where τ is the minority carrier lifetime,

Δn is the excess minority carriers concentration
R is the recombination rate.
Diffusion Length
 “Minority carrier diffusion length," is the average distance a
carrier moves between generation and recombination.
 For a single crystalline silicon solar cell, the diffusion length is
typically 100-300 µm.
 Lifetime and diffusion length indicates the quality and suitability
for solar cell application.
 The diffusion length is related to the carrier lifetime by the
diffusivity according to the following formula:

Where L is the diffusion length in meters, D is the diffusivity in m²/s

and  is the lifetime in seconds.
• Since the semiconducting materials that are heavily doped, so they
have greater recombination rates and consequently, have shorter
diffusion lengths.
• So a semiconductor with a higher diffusion lengths indicates the
materials with longer lifetime.
• The diffusion length is related to the carrier
lifetime by the diffusivity according to the following
formula:

Where L is the diffusion length in meters, D is the

diffusivity in m²/s and  is the lifetime in seconds.
• Since the semiconducting materials that are
heavily doped, so they have greater recombination
rates and consequently, have shorter diffusion
lengths.
• So a semiconductor with a higher diffusion lengths
indicates the materials with longer lifetime.
 Solar cells are composed of layers of semiconductors such as
silicon.
 A solar cell is a multi-layered unit consisting of a:
 Cover - glass or plastic layer provides outer protection.
 Transparent Adhesive - holds the glass to the rest of the
solar cell. Ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA).
 Anti-reflective Coating - this layer is required to minimize
the reflection, so that absorbed energy becomes maximum.
 Front Contact - transmits the electric current.
 n-layer - this is a thin layer of silicon which has been mixed
with phosphorous to make it a better conductor. Phosphorus
gives the layer excess electron making it n-type.
 p-layer - This is a thin layer of silicon which has been doped
with boron to make it a better conductor. This layer has a
tendency to attract electron.
 Back Contact - transmits the electric current.
 P-N Junction - The contact point and barrier is called the p-n
junction.
• Generally, the efficiency of the solar cells may be improved by three ways:
(a) maximizing the photon absorption in the absorbing layer of the solar cells i.e.
enhancing the optical confinement inside the solar cells
(b) increasing the number of photo-generated electron-hole pairs
(c) collecting and transferring the photo-generated carriers in the external circuit
efficiently.

Schematic of a simple standard solar cell structure showing (1) the generation of
electron-hole pairs, (2) the separation of photo-generated electron-hole pairs by
the internal electrical field across the p-n junction and (3) the electrical current
flowing through an external circuit
Solar Cell:
A solar cell is an optoelectronic device that converts sunlight into electricity. The
photovoltaic effect was first discovered by Becquerel in 1839 . The basic operation of
the solar cell can be well understood by the following steps:
• Generation of electron-hole pairs: If the energy of the incident photon on the
semiconductor or the solar cell is higher than the bandgap energy of the
semiconductor then a large number of electron-hole pairs are generated.
• Separation of generated electron-hole pairs: Diffusion of photo-generated
electron-hole pairs inside the solar cell is random. But to obtain the flow of current in
the external circuit, the photo-generated carriers must be separated and this
separation is achieved by means of the electric field present at p-n junction. Electric
field is directed from n⁺emitter to p-substrate. The flow of electrons is directed in the
opposite direction of the electric field (p to n+) and the movement of holes is in the
same direction of the electric field (n⁺to p). But separation of all the photo-generated
carriers is practically not possible; some of these are recombined too at the bulk and
surface of the semiconductor as well as at the metal-semiconductor interface.
• Flow of the electric current through an external circuit: As the electrons and
holes are moved in the opposite direction due to the presence of an electric field at
the junction, p-substrate becomes enriched with holes and n ⁺ emitter becomes
enriched with electrons. Due to this charge separation phenomenon, a photovoltage is
developed and it results in the flow of current in the external circuit.
Light is absorbed by the semiconductor and makes electrons to gain enough energy to jump from the valence
band to the conduction band. Charges are circulated through an external circuit by the use of contacts.
When light with energy E=hν where h is the Planck's constant and ν the frequency of the radiation, shines on
a semiconductor, one of the following situations may occur:
1) If the energy of the photons is smaller than the band gap of the semiconductor, then the material acts
transparent to light.
2) If the energy of the photons is equal to or higher than the band gap of the semiconductor, their energy is
absorbed by the material, which allows the electrons to jump to the conduction band, leaving a hole in the
valence band. Energy from the photons that exceeds the band gap is transformed into heat.
Diode Equation
Ideal Diodes
The diode equation gives an expression for the current
through a diode as a function of voltage. The Ideal Diode
Law, expressed as:

where:
I = the net current flowing through the diode;
I0 = "dark saturation current", the diode leakage current
density in the absence of light;
V = applied voltage across the terminals of the diode;
q = absolute value of electron charge;
k = Boltzmannn’s constant; and
T = absolute temperature (K).
The "dark saturation current" (I 0) is an extremely
important parameter which differentiates one
diode from another. I0 is a measure of the
recombination in a device. A diode with a larger
recombination will have a larger I0.
It is important to note that
 I0 increases as T increases
 I0 decreases as material quality increases.
At 300K, kT/q = 25.85 mV, the "thermal
voltage".
Non-Ideal Diodes
For real diodes, the expression becomes

where:
n = ideality factor, n varies between 1 and 2
which increases as the current decreases.

For real diodes, the saturation current is

strongly dependent on the
(i)diode temperature
(ii) ideality factor.
Light generated
• When light falls on the solar
current
cells two process occurs. In
the first step light is being
absorbed by the
semiconducting material to
create e-h pair. Then the e-h
pair will be separated out by
the electric field that exists
in the pn junction.
Downward shifting of • In the fourth quadrant of
dark IV curve. When the curve, voltage is positive
light shines on a pn and current is negative,
junction diode i.e resulting a –ve power.
curve (b) is
illuminated IV curve. • The –ve power implies that
the power can be extracted
from the device. Therefore,
solar cell generates power
Equivalent circuit of a
solar cell

Schematic symbol of a solar cell

• The series resistance arises due to a) contact
resistance at metal semiconductor interface b) ohmic
resistance of both metal electrodes, and c) ohmic
resistance through the emitter and base of the solar
cell.
• The slope of the I-V curve at open circuit voltage is a
good estimation of series resistance.
• The shunt resistance presence is due to the leakage
current from the solar cell junction which depends on
the manufacturing defects.
• These two resistances are the main cause of voltage
loss and low fill factor in the solar cell.
 In ideal diodes a current source is there in parallel with
a diode.
 But in practice no solar cells are ideal. For real solar
cells series resistance and shunt resistance component
must be there.
 From the equivalent circuit it is evident that the current
produced by the solar cell is equal to that produced by
the current source, minus that which flows through the
diode, minus that which flows through the shunt
resistor.

where
I = output current (ampere)
IL = photogenerated current (ampere)
ID = diode current (ampere)
ISH = shunt current (ampere)
The current through these elements is governed by the voltage
across them:

where
Vj = voltage across both diode and resistor RSH (volt)
V = voltage across the output terminals (volt)
I = output current (ampere)
RS = series resistance (Ω).
By the Shockley diode equation, the current diverted through the
diode is:

where
I0 = reverse saturation current (ampere)
n = diode ideality factor (1 for an ideal diode)
q = elementary charge
k = Boltzmann's constant
T = absolute temperature
 By Ohm's law, the current diverted through the shunt
resistor is:

where
RSH = shunt resistance (Ω).
Substituting these into the first equation produces the
characteristic equation of a solar cell, which relates
solar cell parameters to the output current and voltage:

The parameters I0, n, RS, and RSH cannot be measured

directly. So open circuit voltage and short circuit current
has to be measured.
 The values of I0, RS, and RSH are dependent upon the
area of the solar cell.
 If we compare two cells, a cell with twice the surface
area of another. In principle, the cell which has double
surface area has double the the value of I0 since it has
twice the junction area across which current can leak. It
will also have half the RS and RSH because it has twice
the cross-sectional area through which current can flow.
So it is necessary to write the characteristic equation in
terms of current density, or current produced per unit
cell area.

where
J = current density (ampere/cm2)
JL = photogenerated current density (ampere/cm2)
2
Solar cell Characteristics

• Solar cells are characterised and compared with each other with
four parameters.: short circuit current Isc , open circuit voltage Voc,
fill factor FF and efficiency .
When we put V=0 in the equation

We will get Isc = -IL

So short circuit current is nothing but the light
generated current. Short circuit current is
usually represented in terms of current density
i.e current per unit area, in terms of mA/cm2 .
When a photon is absorbed in a solar cell it
generates an electron-hole pair which is
separated by the junction and transported to
the external circuit.
 A photon is required to posses energy higher
than the band gap energy of the material in
ordered to be absorbed. This means short circuit
A material with a large bandgap will absorb less
number of photons as compared to the material
with low bandgap.
So the short circuit current will increase with
decrease in bandgap energy.

Maximum possible short circuit current as a

function of bandgap of semiconductor materials
Open Circuit Voltage Voc
It is the maximum voltage generated across the
terminals of a solar cell when they are kept
open i.e I = 0. Putting this in the following
equation

 So the open circuit voltage depends on the

light generated current and reverse saturated
If a photon of energy higher than the bandgap
energy is absorbed, it excites an electron from
the valence to the conduction band, raising its
potential energy by an amount equal to Eg = qV.
If there are no potential drop in solar cell then
the electrostatic potential V = -Eg /q should be
the maximum possible voltage that can be
obtained from a solar cell. Thus the upper limit
to Voc is decided by the bandgap energy of the
material.
The larger is the bandgap of the material, the
higher is the Voc of the solar cell. The bandgap
of Si is 1.1 eV, so maximum possible Voc is 1.1 V.
Fill Factor (FF):
It is ratio of maximum power Pm = Vm × Im that
can be extracted from a solar cell to the ideal
power Po = Voc × Isc
FF = (Vm × Im )/ (Voc × Isc )
 The FF represents the squareness of the solar
cell I-V curve. It is represented in terms of
percentage.
FF is mainly related to the resistive losses in a
solar cell. In ideal case, its value can be 100%
corresponding to square I-V curve.
Solar cell with higher Voc has higher FF.
 Good solar cell typically will have FF values
more than 0.80V or close to this.
Efficiency ():
It is defined as the ratio of the power output to
power input. The power output is the maximum
power point pm of a solar cell, and input power
is the power of solar radiation prad .
Prad = 100 mW/cm2 or 1000 W/m2
 = pm / prad
using Pm = Vm × Im
So  = (Vm × Im)/ prad = Voc Isc FF/ prad
 The short circuit current of a solar cell
decreases with increase in bandgap. Open
circuit voltage of a solar cell increases
with increase in bandgap. So there is an
optimum bandgap for which efficiency of a
Collection Probability
 The "collection probability" describes the
probability that a carrier generated by light
absorption in a certain region of the device will
be collected by the p-n junction and therefore
contribute to the light-generated current, but
probability depends on the distance that a
light-generated carrier must travel compared to
the diffusion length.
Collection probability also depends on the
surface properties of the device.
The collection probability of carriers generated
in the depletion region is unity as the electron-
hole pair are quickly swept apart by the electric
field and are collected.
The impact of surface passivation and
diffusion length on collection probability
• The collection probability in conjunction with
the generation rate in the solar cell determine
the light-generated current from the solar cell.
At the surfaces, the collection probability
is lower than in the bulk. Comparing the
generation rates for blue, green and
infrared light below, blue light is nearly
completely absorbed in the first few
tenths of a micron in silicon. Therefore, if
the collection probability at the front
surface is low, any blue light in the solar
spectrum does not contribute to the light-
generated current.
 Blue light of 0.45 µm has a high
absorption coefficient of 105 cm-1 and is
therefore absorbed very close to the front
surface. Red light at 0.8 µm and an
absorption coefficient of 103 cm-1 is
Quantum Efficiency
 “Quantum efficiency" (Q.E.) is the ratio of the
number of carriers collected by the solar cell to
the number of photons of a given energy
incident on the solar cell.
 The quantum efficiency can be expressed as a
function of wavelength or energy.
 The quantum efficiency for photons with energy
below the band gap is zero.

Quantum efficiency curve

for an ideal solar cell
The "external quantum efficiency” (EQE) of a
silicon solar cell includes the effect of optical
losses such as transmission and reflection.
However, it is often useful to look at the
quantum efficiency of the light left after the
reflected and transmitted light has been lost.
"Internal" quantum efficiency refers to the
efficiency with which photons that are not
reflected or transmitted out of the cell can
generate collectable carriers. By measuring the
reflection and transmission of a device, the
external quantum efficiency curve can be
corrected to obtain the internal quantum
efficiency curve.
Spectral Response
 Conceptually spectral response is similar to the
quantum efficiency.
 Quantum efficiency gives the number of electrons
output by the solar cell compared to the number
of photons incident on the device.
 Spectral response is the ratio of the current
generated by the solar cell to the power incident
on the solar cell.
 At short wavelengths below 400 nm the glass
absorbs most of the light and the cell response is
very low. At intermediate wavelengths the cell
approaches the ideal.
 At long wavelenghts the response fall back to
zero.
 The ideal spectral response is limited at long
wavelengths by the inability of the semiconductor
to absorb photons with energies below the band
gap.
 Unlike the square shape of QE curves, the
spectral response decreases at small photon
wavelengths. At these wavelengths, each photon
has a large energy, and hence the ratio of
photons to power is reduced.
 Any energy above the band gap energy is not
utilised by the solar cell and instead goes to
 The quantum efficiency can be determined from the
spectral response by replacing the power of the light
at a particular wavelength with the photon flux for that
wavelength.
Different Loss Mechanisms in Solar Cells
In Solar Cells, various loss mechanisms exist that reduces the efficiency
significantly.
• A considerable amount of the incident light may be lost by the
reflection from the shiny surface of the solar cell before entering the
cell material.
• When the high-energy photons i.e. photons with energy much greater
than the band gap energy Eg of the material, incidents on a solar cell,
the remaining energy (hυ-Eg) is released to the crystal lattice in the
form of heat energy. Therefore a large amount of solar energy (nearly
30%) in lost as heat energy.
• The non-absorbed long wavelength photons also lost.
• In the doped areas due to recombination the electron-hole pairs are also
destroyed and as a result photocurrent decreases.
• Due to the abrupt disruption at the surface of a semiconductor crystal
lattice defects levels are created at the band gap and this results in the
recombination of the electron-hole pairs at the surface that reduces the
photo generated current effectively.
 Methods which are used to reduce such losses in crystalline silicon
solar cells
• Anti-reflection coating reduces the loss due to reflection from the
surface of a solar cell.
• Surface Texturing is an efficient strategy to enhance the light trapping
in the cell materials. In this process the effective thickness of the cell
becomes large as surface texturing creates an angle in the path of the
normally incident light.
• Surface Passivation is required to prevents the recombination at the
surfaces and interfaces of a solar cell. Currently two complementary
approaches are used for surface passivation. They are chemical and
field effect surface passivation.
• Back Surface Field (BSF) is generated by introducing a heavily doped
layer (n+ or p+) close to the back contact of a solar cell. Therefore a
high-low junction in created close to the back surface of a solar cell
and this results in a effective surface passivation .
 1st Generation Solar Cell

AMORPHOUS
SILICON SOLAR
CELLS
SINGLE CRYSTAL SILICON : VERY ( SINGLE
LARGE SCALE
AND
PRODUCTION* MULTIJUNCTION)
: LARGE SCALE
PRODUCTION **
MICROMORPH
TANDEM
( DOUBLE AND
MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON : VERYTRIPLE) LARGE
SCALE PRODUCTION STRUCTURE
CELLS : LARGE
SCALE
PRODUCTION**
CdTe BASED
SOLAR CELLS
: LARGE
RIBBON SILICON : SMALL SCALE PRODUCTION***
SCALE
PRODUCTION
**
CIGS BASED
SOLAR CELLS
: LARGE
Concentrator PV ** SCALE
PRODUCTION
**
* Very Large Scale Production: Multi GW
** Large Scale Production: 1 GW
*** Small Scale Production: ~ MW
Module Structure
A PV module consists of a number of interconnected solar cells (typically 36 connected
in series) encapsulated into a single, long-lasting, stable unit.

PV Module

PV Arrays

Individual cells are connected in series by soldering thin metal strips from the top
surface (negative terminal) of one cell to the back surface (positive terminal) of the
next. Modules are connected in series with other modules by connecting conductors
between the negative terminal of one module to the positive terminal of another
module. When individual devices are electrically connected in series, the positive
connection of the whole circuit is made at the device on one end of the string and the
negative connection is made at the device on the opposite end
The PV cells are laminated within a polymer (plastic) substrate to hold
them in place and to protect the electrical connections between cells.
The cell laminates are then encapsulated (sealed) between a rigid
backing material and a glass cover. Some thin-film laminates use
flexible materials such as aluminum or stainless steel substrate and
polymer encapsulation instead of a glass cover.
An individual silicon solar cell has a voltage of just under
0.6V under 25 °C and AM1.5 illumination. At AM1.5 and
under optimum tilt conditions, the current density from a
commercial solar cell is approximately between 30 mA/cm 2 to
36 mA/cm2. Single crystal solar cells are often 100cm2, giving
a total current of about 3.5 A from a module. An open-circuit
voltage of about 21V may be obtained.
Heat Loss in PV Modules
The operating temperature of a PV module is an equilibrium between the
heat generated by the PV module and the heat loss to the surrounding
environment. There are three main mechanisms of heat loss: conduction,
convection and radiation.
Nominal Operating Cell Temperature ( NOCT )
A PV module will be typically rated at 25 °C under 1 kW/m2. However, when operating
in the field, they typically operate at higher temperatures and at somewhat lower
insolation conditions. In order to determine the power output of the solar cell, it is
important to determine the expected operating temperature of the PV module. The
Nominal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT) is defined as the temperature reached by
open circuited cells in a module under the conditions as listed below:
[Link] on cell surface = 800 W/m2
[Link] Temperature = 20°C
[Link] Velocity = 1 m/s
[Link] = open back side.
The equations for solar radiation and temperature difference between the module and
air show that both conduction and convective losses are linear with incident solar
insolation for a given wind speed, provided that the thermal resistance and heat transfer
coefficient do not vary strongly with temperature.
An approximate expression for calculating the cell temperature is given by :

where: S = insolation in mW/cm2. Module temperature will be lower than this when
wind velocity is high, but higher under still conditions.
Typical PV Systems
Main Application Areas – Off-grid

Space

Water Telecom
Pumping

Solar Home Systems

Main Application Areas Grid Connected

Commercial Building
Systems (50 kW)

Residential Home PV Power Plants

Systems (2-8 kW) ( > 100 kW)