COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

AND ARCHITECTURE
 INTRODUCTION
 Just as buildings, each computer has a visible
structure, referred to as its architecture.
 In computer science and engineering

computer architecture is the practical art of

selecting and interconnecting hardware
components to create computers that meet
functional, performance and cost goals and
the formal modeling of those systems.
 The functional blocks in a computer are of

four types:
1. Central Processing Unit
2. Memory
3. Input Unit
4. Output Unit
DATA FLOW BETWEEN CPU, MEMORY
AND I/O DEVICES
Data Path
Auxilliary Storage Control Signals
(Backing Storage)
To Supplement main
storage

Memory
Output
Input
Unit
Unit

Control Unit ALU

Registers

Processor
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
 The CPU or the microprocessor (or simply
processor) is referred as the brain of a
computer system.
 CPU consists of three main subsystems, the

Control Unit (CU), the Arithmetic Logic Unit

(ALU), and the Registers.
 Speed of the computer system is defined by

the architecture of the processor being used.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
(CONDT…)
ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT
 The ALU contains electronic circuits
necessary to perform arithmetic and logical
operations.
 The arithmetic operations are ADD,

SUBSTRACT, MULTIPLY, DIVIDE, etc.

 The logical operations include COMPARE,

SHIFT, ROTATE, AND, OR, etc

 The control unit analyses each instruction in

the program and sends the relevant signals

to all other units – ALU, Memory, Input unit
and Output unit
COMMUNICATION INSIDE A
COMPUTER..
 A computer program consists of both
instructions and data. The program is fed into
the computer through the input unit and
stored in the memory.
 In order to execute the program, the

instructions have to be fetched from memory

one by one.
 This fetching of instructions is done by the

control unit.
 After an instruction is fetched, the control

unit decodes the instruction.

 According to the instruction, the control unit

issues control signals to other units.

COMMUNICATION INSIDE A
COMPUTER..
o After an instruction is executed, the result of
the instruction is stored in memory or stored
temporarily in the control unit or ALU, so that
this can be used by the next instruction.
o The results of a program are taken out of the
computer through the output unit.
o The control unit, ALU and registers are
collectively known as Central Processing Unit
(CPU)
COMMUNICATION INSIDE A
COMPUTER
INTERCONNECTION OF UNITS
 A computer program consists of both
instructions and data.
 The program is fed into the computer

through the input unit and stored in the

memory.
 In order to execute the program, the

instructions have to be fetched from memory

one by one and store it into registers
(working memory) for processing.
 This fetching of instructions is done by the

control unit.
INSTRUCTION CYCLE
 Instruction are fetched and executed by the
control unit one by one. The sequences
involved for the fetch of one instruction and
its execution are known as instruction cycle.
INSTRUCTION CYCLE
INSTRUCTION CYCLE STEPS
INTERCONNECTIONS OF UNITS..
 Set of wires used for interconnection is
known as system bus which carry group of
bits (information) in a controlled manner.
 It is further divided into three logical units,

namely the address bus, the data bus, and

the control bus.
SYSTEM BUSES TYPES
 Data Bus: The data bus is used when any
unit is sending data, instruction or command
code to some other units.
 Address Bus: The address bus is used when

one unit is sending an address information

i.e. location of the data residing in the
memory to another unit.
 CONTROL BUS
 Control Bus: The control bus is responsible
for making CPU, memory and I/O devices
work together as a functional system,
carrying signals that report the status (ready,
not ready) of various units.
 The function of a control bus is to determine

and instruct according to the operation type

(Read or Write). For example, if the processor
or an I/O device wants to read or write a
value from memory, the control bus will
specify it.
PROCESSING OF INFORMATION
 The bus is common to all the units in the
computer. Before sending some information
on the bus, an unit should verify whether the
bus is free or occupied with some
communication started by some other unit.
 CPU is the bus master in a computer which

decides who should control the bus when

more than one unit wants the bus at the
same time.
 An unit who needs the bus makes a request

to the CPU and waits sanction. Till the CPU

issues sanction, the requesting unit does not
attempt to use the bus.
 INTERCONNECTION OF COMPUTERS
UNITS VIA SYSTEM BUS

Input and
Memory
CPU Output(I/O)
Unit
Units

Data Bus
Address Bus
Control Bus

System
Bus
INTERCONNECTION OF COMPUTERS
UNITS VIA BUS
 Shows how the
system bus
interconnects the
processor, memory
and I/O devices.
 Both processor and

memory units hold a

bi-directional
relationship with the
control and data
bus.
INTERCONNECTION OF COMPUTERS
UNITS VIA BUS
 In case of an address
bus, the
communication with
processor and
memory is
unidirectional.
 Processor provides

location of data
(stored in the
register) to be
fetched from the
memory to the
address bus and the
data carries the
INTERCONNECTION OF COMPUTER
UNITS VIA BUS
 I/O devices have a
bi-directional
relationship with the
system bus.
REGISTERS
 It is a special temporary storage location within the
CPU.
 Registers quickly accept, store and transfer data and
instructions that are being used immediately.
 To execute an instruction, the control unit of the CPU
retrieves it from main memory and places it onto a
register.
 The typical operations that take place in the
processing of instruction are part of the instruction
cycle or execution cycle.
 The instruction cycle refers to the retrieval of the
instruction from main memory and its sub sequence
at decoding.
 The time it takes to go through the instruction cycle is
referred to as I-time.
ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
 ALU performs all the arithmetic and logical
functions.
 It performs arithmetic as well as logical

functions.
 The speed of the computer system is defined

by the architecture of the processor being

used.
CONTROL UNIT
 It is responsible for directing and
coordinating most of the computer system
activities.
 It does not execute instructions by itself. It

tells other parts of the computer system

what to do.
 It determines the movement of electronic

signals between the main memory and

arithmetic logic unit as well as the control
signals between the CPU and input/output
devices.
CONTROL UNIT(CONDT…)
 To complete an event i.e. processing, control
unit repeats a set of four basic operations:
 Fetching is the process of obtaining a

program instruction or data item from the

memory
 Decoding is the process of translating the

instruction into commands the computer can

execute.
 Executing is the process of carrying out the

commands.
 Storing is the process of writing the result to

memory.
CONTROL UNIT(CONDT…)
 The internal communication inside a computer
that transforms raw data into useful information
is called processing.
 To perform this transformation, the computer
uses two components- processor and memory
 The program is fed into the computer through the
input unit and stored in the memory
 To execute the program, the instructions have to
be fetched from memory one by one which is
done by control unit
 Then the control unit decodes the instruction.
CONTROL UNIT(CONDT…)
 According to instruction, control unit issues
signals to other units.
 After instruction is executed, the result of the

instruction is stored in memory or stored

temporarily in the registry, so that this can
be used by the next instruction.
 The results of a program are taken out of the

computer through the output unit.

MEMORY
 Memory is the computer's electronic
scratchpad or local store in computer
terminology.
 Used for temporary storage of calculations,

data, and other work in progress.

 Two types: Primary and Secondary

 Primary memory or the main memory is part

of the main computer system. The primary

memory itself is of two types.
 The first is called random access memory

(RAM) and the other is read only memory

(ROM).
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)
 The processor directly stores and retrieves
information from it.
 Memory is organized into locations. Each

memory location is identified by a unique

address. The access time is same for all
location.
 It is volatile: when turned off, everything in

RAM disappears.

 Two types:
TYPES OF RAM
 Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM):
This type RAM retain the content of any
location only for a few milliseconds. Within
that period, each location must be written
again with the same contents. This is known
as refreshing.

 Static Random Access Memory (SRAM):

This type of RAM preserves the contents of
all the locations as long as the power supply
is present. SRAM is generally included in a
computer system by the name of cache.
READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)
 Data stored in ROM cannot be modified, or
can be modified only slowly or with difficulty,
so it is mainly used to distribute.
 The instructions in ROM are built into the

electronic circuits of the chip which is called

firmware.
 Random access in nature and non-volatile.
TYPES OF ROM
 Programmable read-only memory (PROM), or one-
time programmable ROM can be written to or
programmed via a special device called a PROM
programmer.
 Erasable programmable read-only memory
(EPROM) can be erased by exposure to strong
ultraviolet light then rewritten with a process that
again needs higher than usual voltage applied.
 Electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory (EEPROM) is based on a similar
semiconductor structure to EPROM, but allows its
entire contents (or selected banks) to be
electrically erased, then rewritten electrically, so
that they need not be removed from the
computer
FLASH MEMORY
 Modern type of EEPROM invented in 1984.
 Random access memories and are non-

volatile.
 Use one transistor per memory cell and come

in capacities ranging from 1 MB to 32 GB by

the year 2007.
 The read time is much smaller (tens of

nanoseconds) compared write time (tens of

microseconds).
VARIETIES OF SEMICONDUCTOR
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORIES

Main memory of Read Only Memory

computers (ROM)

Read/Write
memory Factory User Erasable PROM
Programmed Programmable
PROM
SRAM DRAM
Permanent
non-erasable (Non-erasable)
UVEPROM EEPROM
CACHE MEMORY
 High speed memory kept in between
processor and RAM to increase the data
execution speed.
 Kept near to the processor.

 Major reason for incorporating cache in the

system is that the CPU is much faster than

the DRAM and needs a place to store
information that can be accessed quickly.
 Cache fetches the frequently used data from

the DRAM and buffers (stores) it for further

processor usage.
CACHE MEMORY
DIFFERENT LEVELS OF CACHE
 L1-cache is the fastest cache and it usually
comes within the processor chip itself. L1
cache typically ranges in size from 8KB to
64KB and uses the high-speed SRAM instead
of the slower and cheaper DRAM used for
main memory.
 L2 cache comes between L1 and RAM and is

bigger than the primary cache.

 L3 cache is not found nowadays as its

function is replaced by L2 cache. L3 caches

are found on the motherboard rather than
the processor. It is kept between RAM and L2
cache.
PROCESSOR SPEED
 Speed of a computer system is determined
by several factors, clock speed of the
processor and the speed and size of the data
bus.
 Clock speed is the rate at which the

processor processes information and this is

measured in millions of cycles per
second(Megahertz)
 The more the number of hertz, the faster is

the processing speed

 The larger the bus width and the faster the

bus speed, the greater the amount of data

can travel on it in a given amount of time.
INPUT DEVICES
 Any peripheral used to provide data and
control signals to an information processing
system such as a computer or other
information appliance.
 Common input devices: Keyboard, Mouse

 Other devices: microphone, digital camera,

scanner.
OUTPUT DEVICES
 Any piece of computer hardware equipment
used to communicate the results of
processed data to the user.
 Examples: Monitors, Printers, Speakers, etc.
 LET US SUMMARISE..
 Computer organization and architecture is
defined as the science of selecting and
interconnecting hardware components to
create computers that meet functional,
performance and cost goals.
 The central processing unit is the brain of the

computer system where all the computing is

done. It consists of three main components,
the control unit (CU), the arithmetic logic unit
(ALU) and the registers.
 The control unit controls the Input/Output

devices and transfer of data to and from the

primary storage.
LET US SUMMARISE..
 The Arithmetic Unit is responsible for
carrying out the arithmetic calculations such
as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division.
 The Logic Unit provides CPU the ability to

make logical operations like comparing two

data items and taking different actions
based on the results of the comparison.
 Registers are special purpose, high-speed

temporary memory units used by the

processor for holding data.
LET US SUMMARISE..
 The System bus is a set of wires used for
interconnection of different units of a
computer system. The three logical units of a
system bus are the address bus, the data
bus, and the control bus.
 A cache is a piece of very fast memory,

made from high-speed static RAM that

reduces the access time of the data. It is very
expensive and generally incorporated in the
processor, where valuable data and program
segments are kept.
LET US SUMMARISE..
 Instructions comprise two parts, namely, the
op-code and the operand. They are
transferred one at a time into the processor,
where they are decoded and the executed.
 The Instruction Cycle details the sequence of

events that takes place as an instruction is

read from memory and executed.
 In a Fetch Cycle, instruction to be executed is

fetched from the memory to the processor.

 The Decode Cycle is responsible for

recognizing which operation the instruction

represents activating the correct circuitry to
perform that operation.
LET US SUMMARISE..
 During the Execute Cycle, the operation
specified by the op-code is performed on
user provided data in the ALU.
 In the Store Cycle, the results from the

execution cycle are stored back to the

memory.
 Processors are built with the ability to

execute a limited set of basic operations

called the Instruction Set.
 The speed of the processor is measured in

millions of cycles per second or Megahertz

(MHz).
LET US SUMMARISE..
 Two notables factors on which the speed of a
processor depends are the clock speed of the
processor and the speed and the size of the
data bus
DESIGN PRINCIPLES IN COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE
 1. Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)
 The instruction set architecture (ISA) is a

crucial design principle that defines the

programming interface between a computer
system’s hardware and software
components.
 It includes the set of instructions that a

processor can execute and the format of

these instructions. Two prominent types of
ISA are CISC (Complex Instruction Set
Computer) and RISC (Reduced Instruction Set
Computer).
DESIGN PRINCIPLES IN
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE
 2. CISC (Complex Instruction Set
Computer)
 CISC architecture focuses on providing a rich

set of complex instructions that can be

executed directly by the processor.
 It emphasises reducing the number of

instructions required to perform a task. CISC

processors typically have more instruction
formats and addressing modes, allowing
complex operations to be executed with
fewer instructions.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES IN COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE
 3. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set
Computer)
 RISC processors rely on a more significant

number of more straightforward instructions

and prioritise instruction pipelining and
efficient use of registers.
 RISC architecture, on the other hand,

advocates for a simplified education set with

a fixed instruction format. It aims to optimise
the execution time of individual instructions
by simplifying their complexity.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
AND ARCHITECTURE
 4. Memory Hierarchy
 The memory hierarchy is crucial to computer

organisation and architecture, enabling efficient

data access and storage. The memory hierarchy
consists of various levels of memory, each with
different access times and capacities.
 5. Cache Memory

 Cache memory is a small, high-speed memory

between the processor and the main memory. It

stores frequently accessed data and instructions,
providing faster access than main memory.
 Cache memory operates based on the principle of

locality, exploiting the fact that programs tend to

access data and instructions from nearby
DESIGN PRINCIPLES IN
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE
 6. Virtual Memory
 Virtual memory is a technique used to overcome

the limitations of physical memory. It allows the

execution of programs more significantly than the
available physical memory by utilising secondary
storage (usually a hard disk) as an extension of the
main memory. Virtual memory enables efficient
memory management, allowing multiple programs
to run simultaneously.
 7. Input/Output (I/O) Systems

 I/O systems facilitate communication between the

computer and external devices, enabling data

exchange and interaction. Designing efficient I/O
systems is crucial for overall system performance.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES IN COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE
 8. I/O Interface
 The I/O interface provides the protocols and

mechanisms for connecting peripheral devices to

the computer system. It ensures compatibility
and enables efficient data transfer between the
computer and peripherals.
 9. Interrupts and DMA

 Interrupts and Direct Memory Access (DMA) are

techniques used to improve I/O performance.

Interrupts allow the computer system to respond
promptly to external events. DMA will enable
devices to directly access memory without
involving the processor, reducing CPU overhead
during data transfer operations.
DESIGN METHODOLOGIES IN COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE
 Design methodologies play a vital role in the
development of computer systems. They
provide systematic approaches to designing,
optimising, and evaluating computer
organisation and architecture.
 1. Top-Down Design

 Top-down design is an approach that starts

with the highest-level abstractions and

progressively refines them into lower-level
details.
 It allows designers to have a holistic view of

the system and break it down into

manageable modules. This methodology
ensures the system is designed based on the
desired functionality and requirements.
DESIGN METHODOLOGIES IN COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE

 2. Bottom-Up Design
 Bottom-up innovation is often used when

designing specialised components or

integrating existing modules into a more
extensive system. Contrary to top-down
design, bottom-up design begins with
individual parts and gradually assembles
them to create a complete system. This
methodology allows for the reusability of
members and promotes modular design.
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION AND
BENCHMARKING
 Performance evaluation and benchmarking
are essential in computer organisation and
architecture to measure and compare the
performance of different systems.
 Various metrics, such as execution time,

throughput, and power consumption,

evaluate system performance. Benchmarking
involves running standardised tests on
computer systems to assess their
performance against established criteria.
VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE
 Von Neumann architecture is a computer design where
instructions and data are stored in the same memory
space. This means the CPU fetches both instructions and
data from the same memory, using the same pathways.
There have been 2 types of Computers:
 Fixed Program Computers - Their function is very

specific, and they couldn't be reprogrammed, e.g.,

calculators.
 Stored Program Computers - These can be programmed

to carry out many different tasks; applications are stored

on them, hence the name.
VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE
VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE
 Components of Von Neumann Architecture
 The structure described in the figure outlines the basic components

of a computer system, particularly focusing on the memory and

processor. It is made up with three main components:
1. CPU
2. Memory
3. I/O Devices
 We have these 3 components lets us see more about them in detail:

 CPU (Central Processing Unit)

 The central processing unit (CPU) is the main part of a computer

that controls how it works. It is made up of the control unit, main

memory, and the arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The CPU handles
instructions from programs, processes data, stores information, and
produces results. Without the CPU, a computer cannot perform tasks
or run any applications.
VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE
VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE
CU (Control Unit):
The control unit manages how the processor works by
sending control signals. It decides how data should move
inside the computer, controls input and output operations,
and fetches the instructions from memory for execution.
ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit):
The arithmetic and logic unit is the part of the CPU that
handles the calculations and decision-making tasks. It
performs arithmetic operations like addition and
subtraction, logical operations such as comparisons, and
tasks like shifting bits in data.
VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE
 Registers: Registers are the fastest type of memory located inside
the CPU. They temporarily store information that the processor is
currently working on, making program execution and operations
faster and more efficient. Register serve as the CPU's primary
working memory.
 PC (Program Counter): Keeps track of the address of the next
instruction to be executed.
 IR (Instruction Register): Holds the current instruction being
executed.
 MAR (Memory Address Register): Stores the address of the
memory location being accessed.
 MDR (Memory Data Register): Temporarily holds data being
transferred to or from memory.
 Accumulator: A register that stores intermediate results of
arithmetic and logic operations.
 General Purpose Registers: Used for temporary storage of data
during processing.
VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE
 Buses:
 Data is sent from one portion of a computer to another via buses, which
connect all key internal components to the memory and CPU. They are of
the following types:
 Control Bus: It receives control commands from the CPU, as well as status
signals from other devices, and uses them to control and coordinate all of
the computer’s actions.
 Address Bus: It communicates between memory and the processor the data
address (not the actual data).
 Data Bus: It relays information between the memory unit, I/O devices, and
the processor.
 I/O Devices:
 Under the control of CPU input instructions, the programme or the data
isread into the main memory from the secondary storage or the input
[Link] data from a computer is output using output devices. If any
results areevaluated by a computer and saved in it, you can present them to
a user viaoutput devices.
VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE
 Memory Unit
 The memory unit consists of RAM, sometimes referred

to as primary or main memory. Unlike a hard drive

(secondary memory), this memory is fast and also
directly accessible by the CPU.
 RAM is split into partitions. Each partition consists of

an address and its contents (both in binary form).

 The address will uniquely identify every location in the

memory.
 Loading data from permanent memory (hard drive), into

the faster and directly accessible temporary memory

(RAM), allows the CPU to operate much quicker.
 VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE
Key Characteristics
 Single Memory for Data and Instructions: Both data and program
instructions are stored in the same memory.
 Shared Bus: A single bus is used for transferring data, addresses, and
control signals, which can limit performance.
 Sequential Execution: Instructions are executed one at a time in a
sequential manner.
Von Neumann bottleneck:
 Whatever we do to enhance performance, we cannot get away from the
fact that instructions can only be done one at a time and can only be
carried out sequentially. Both of these factors hold back the competence
of the CPU. This is commonly referred to as the 'Von Neumann
bottleneck'. We can provide a Von Neumann processor with more cache,
more RAM, or faster components but if original gains are to be made in
CPU performance then an influential inspection needs to take place of
CPU configuration.
VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE
Applications:
 Von Neumann architecture is the foundation of most modern computing
systems, where both instructions and data are stored in the same
memory. Here are the some applications:
 Personal Computers and Laptops: Most PCs and laptops (Intel/AMD) use
a shared memory that stores both programs and data, enabling efficient
running of software like Windows and browsers. Example: Intel Core i7,
AMD Ryzen processors.
 Smartphones and Tablets: ARM-based devices use the shared memory
model to support multitasking and power efficiency in apps on iOS and
Android. Example: Qualcomm Snapdragon, Apple A-series chips
 Embedded Systems: Microcontrollers in cars, IoT devices, and appliances
use Von Neumann architecture for simple, cost-effective processing of
instructions and data in the same memory. Example Arduino Uno
(ATmega328), older ARM Cortex-M designs.
 Servers and Cloud Computing: Servers utilize shared memory systems to
handle large-scale software and data tasks for services like AWS and
Netflix.
 Gaming Consoles: Consoles like PS5 and Xbox use unified memory to run
game code and manage inputs, enabling smooth gameplay.
 MEMORY HIERARCHY
 In the Computer System Design, Memory Hierarchy is an
enhancement to organize the memory such that it can minimize
the access time. The Memory Hierarchy was developed based
on a program behavior known as locality of references (same
data or nearby data is likely to be accessed again and again).
Why Memory Hierarchy is Required in the System?
 Memory Hierarchy helps in optimizing the memory available in

the computer.
 There are multiple levels present in the memory, each one

having a different size, different cost, etc. Some types of

memory like cache, and main memory are faster as compared
to other types of memory but they are having a little less size
and are also costly whereas some memory has a little higher
storage value, but they are a little slower.
 Accessing of data is not similar in all types of memory, some
MEMORY HIERARCHY
Types of Memory Hierarchy
 This Memory Hierarchy Design is divided into 2

main types:
 External Memory or Secondary
Memory: Comprising of Magnetic Disk, Optical
Disk, and Magnetic Tape i.e. peripheral storage
devices which are accessible by the processor via
an I/O Module.
 Internal Memory or Primary Memory: Comprising

of Main Memory, Cache Memory & CPU registers.

This is directly accessible by the processor.
 Memory Hierarchy Design
 1. Registers

 Registers are small, high-speed memory units located in

the CPU. They are used to store the most frequently used
data and instructions. Registers have the fastest access
time and the smallest storage capacity, typically ranging
from 16 to 64 bits.
 2. Cache Memory

 Cache memory is a small, fast memory unit located close

to the CPU. It stores frequently used data and instructions

that have been recently accessed from the main
memory. Cache memory is designed to minimize the time
it takes to access data by providing the CPU with quick
access to frequently used data.
 3. Main Memory
 Main memory, also known as RAM (Random Access

Memory), is the primary memory of a computer system. It

has a larger storage capacity than cache memory, but it is
slower. Main memory is used to store data and instructions
that are currently in use by the CPU.
 Types of Main Memory

 Static RAM: Static RAM stores the binary information in

flip flops and information remains valid until power is

supplied. Static RAM has a faster access time and is used in
implementing cache memory.
 Dynamic RAM: It stores the binary information as a charge

on the capacitor. It requires refreshing circuitry to maintain

the charge on the capacitors after a few milliseconds. It
contains more memory cells per unit area as compared to
SRAM.
 4. Secondary Storage
 Secondary storage, such as hard disk drives (HDD) and solid-state
drives (SSD) , is a non-volatile memory unit that has a larger storage
capacity than main memory. It is used to store data and instructions
that are not currently in use by the CPU. Secondary storage has the
slowest access time and is typically the least expensive type of
memory in the memory hierarchy.
 5. Magnetic Disk
 Magnetic Disks are simply circular plates that are fabricated with
either a metal or a plastic or a magnetized material. The Magnetic
disks work at a high speed inside the computer and these are
frequently used.
 6. Magnetic Tape
 Magnetic Tape is simply a magnetic recording device that is covered
with a plastic film. Magnetic Tape is generally used for the backup
of data. In the case of a magnetic tape, the access time for a
computer is a little slower and therefore, it requires some amount of
time for accessing the strip.
 Characteristics of Memory Hierarchy
 Capacity: It is the global volume of information the
memory can store. As we move from top to bottom in the
Hierarchy, the capacity increases.
 Access Time: It is the time interval between the read/write

request and the availability of the data. As we move from

top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the access time increases.
 Performance: The Memory Hierarch design ensures that

frequently accessed data is stored in faster memory to

improve system performance.
 Cost Per Bit: As we move from bottom to top in the

Hierarchy, the cost per bit increases i.e. Internal Memory is

costlier than External Memory.
 Advantages of Memory Hierarchy
 Performance: Frequently used data is stored in faster
memory (like cache), reducing access time and
improving overall system performance.
 Cost Efficiency: By combining small, fast memory (like

registers and cache) with larger, slower memory (like

RAM and HDD), the system achieves a balance between
cost and performance. It saves the consumer's price and
time.
 Optimized Resource Utilization: Combines the benefits

of small, fast memory and large, cost-effective storage to

maximize system performance.
 Efficient Data Management: Frequently accessed data

is kept closer to the CPU, while less frequently used data

is stored in larger, slower memory, ensuring efficient
data handling.
 Disadvantages of Memory Hierarchy
 Complex Design: Managing and coordinating data across

different levels of the hierarchy adds complexity to the

system's design and operation.
 Cost: Faster memory components like registers and cache

are expensive, limiting their size and increasing the overall

cost of the system.
 Latency: Accessing data stored in slower memory (like

secondary or tertiary storage) increases the latency and

reduces system performance.
 Maintenance Overhead: Managing and maintaining
different types of memory adds overhead in terms of
hardware and software.
 QUESTION BANK
1. What do you understand by Central Processing Unit?
Describe in details various units of the CPU.
2. What is a system bus? Name the various units of the
system bus.
3. Explain Von Neumann architecture in detail.
4. Differentiate between CISC and RISC.
5. Write a detailed note on Instruction Cycle describing
the various steps involved.
6. What is Memory Hierarchy? Why it is important?
Explain Memory Hierarchy design.
7. What is Microprocessor? Explain basic components
of Microprocessor.