FUNDAMENTALS of

CONTROL SYSTEMS
WEEK 1 - Introduction to Control Systems
INTRODUCTION
• Control theories commonly used today are classical control theory (also called
conventional control theory), modern control theory, and robust control theory.
• Comprehensive treatments of the analysis and design of control systems based on the
classical control theory and modern control theory.
• Automatic control is essential in any field of engineering and science.
• Automatic control is an important and integral part of space-vehicle systems, robotic
systems, aerial vehicle systems, engine control systems, modern manufacturing
systems, and any industrial operations involving control of temperature, pressure,
humidity, flow, etc.
• It is desirable that most engineers and scientists are familiar with theory and practice
of automatic control.
History of Control Systems:
 In ancient Egypt, automated water clock, and automatic controlled water levels in aqueducts are developed.

 The significant work in automatic control is James Watt’s centrifugal governor for the speed control of a
steam engine in the eighteenth century.

 In 1922, Minorsky worked on automatic controllers for steering ships and worked on stability.

In 1932, Nyquist developed a simple procedure for determining the stability of closed loop systems .

In 1934, Hazen developed the servomechanisms for position control systems.

In 1940s, frequency response methods, Bode diagram and the Ziegler-Nichols rules are introduced.

Around 1960, modern control theory has evolved due to digital computers. Optimal control of both
deterministic and stochastic systems are investigated.

From 1980s to 1990s, robust control and related topics are searched.
• As modern plants with many inputs and outputs become more and more complex, the
description of a modern control system requires a large number of equations.
• Classical control theory, which deals only with single-input, single-output systems, becomes
powerless for multiple-input, multiple-output systems.
• Modern control theory is based on time-domain analysis of differential equation systems.
• Modern control theory made the design of control systems simpler because the theory is
based on a model of an actual control system.
• However, the system’s stability is sensitive to the error between the actual system and its
model.
• This means that when the designed controller based on a model is applied to the actual
system, the system may not be stable.
• To avoid this situation, we design the control system by first setting up the range of possible
errors and then designing the controller in such a way that, if the error of the system stays
within the assumed range, the designed control system will stay stable.
• The design method based on this principle is called robust control theory. This theory
incorporates both the frequency response approach and the time-domain approach.
• The theory is mathematically very complex.
Basic Control Systems Terminologies
1. Control System:
Our environment is surrounded by systems (Mechanical, Electrical, Thermal, Fluid, Biological, Economic,
and/or combinations) which are needed to exhibit some desired response.

 A control system is an interconnection of components forming a system configuration that will provide the
desired system response.

Command, Reference, r( t) Controlled variable, c( t)

Desired response Actual response

Dynamic
( input) System ( output)
 1.1. Control System Goals
• The first goal of the control system is to track (or follow) the reference input r(t)
• The second goal of the control system is to reject (or not respond to) the disturbances
• We hope that the sensor has a transfer function close to 1, so often we ignore sensor
dynamics
• If the sensor dynamics are significant, they should be included in the analysis
 Systems can be controlled mainly in two ways:

Manual Control: Automatic Control:

1. Human controlling the speed of an 1. Cruise control systems
automobile by regulating the gas supply to the
engine by using the gas pedal. 2. Robotic assembly lines

2. Assembling machine parts by hand done by 3. Missile guidance systems

workers
4. Automatic water level control systems
3. A soldier using a bazooka to hit a target.
5. Residential heating and air-
4. Opening a valve by hand to adjust the conditioning systems controlled by a
desired water level. thermostat

5. Opening or closing of a window for

regulating air temperature or air quality,
Automation:
• Automation can be defined as a technology that uses programmed commands to operate a given process, combined
with feedback of information to determine that the commands have been properly executed.

• Automation is often used for processes that were previously operated by humans.

• When automated, the process can operate without human assistance or interference.

• In fact, most automated systems are capable of performing their functions with greater accuracy and precision, and
in less time, than humans are able to do.

• Some processes such as automobile assembly lines requires a combination of human and automation systems. These
are called Semi-automated systems.
1.2. Classification of Control Systems:
Automatic control systems may be classified in a number of ways, depending upon the purpose of the classification. For
instance, according to the effect of the output on the control action, control systems are classified as open-loop control
systems and closed-loop control systems. There are many other ways of classifying control systems:

Control Systems

SISO
Continuous (Single Input –
Open-loop Linear Time- Centralized
time Deterministic Single Output)
invariant

Closed-loop Non-linear Discrete Time- Decentralized Stochastic MIMO

time varying
(Multi Input-
Multi Output)
Distributed

Control Systems can also be classified based on the control design strategy such as Intelligent Control, Adaptive Control,
Robust Control, Optimal Control, etc.
 Classification of Control Systems
• Deterministic and non-deterministic: A system is said to be deterministic if the
outputs y(t) are uniquely determined by the inputs x(t). In deterministic systems,
one can precisely predict the future behavior of a system from the given initial
conditions. However, in stochastic systems (also called probabilistic systems),
although the initial conditions of the system are known, the future of the system
can not be predicted exactly.
• Static and dynamic: If the values of outputs y(t) at time t depends only on the
values of x(t) at the same specific time t, then the system is said to be static.
t tnon-causal:
• Causal and 0 If the values of y(t) at t=t0 depend only values of x(t) at
times then this system is said to be causal. (Note: Static systems are causal).
• Continuous-time and discrete-time systems: If both the inputs and outputs of a
system are defined over a continuous time scale, this system is continuous-time
system.
• Time-varying and time-invariant systems: If the input-output relation of
a system is independent of a shift in time, then this system is said to be
time-invariant.
• Linear and non-linear systems: If the input-output relation of a system
is linear i.e.,
i) A system producing y1(t) in response to x1(t) and producing y2(t)
in response to x2(t) produces y1(t)+y2(t) in response to x1(t)+x2(t).
ii) A system producing y1(t) in response to x1(t) produces ay1(t) in
response to ax1(t) for all admissible inputs and for all constants.
Centralized Control: In large scale systems, If the control action is governed from one control centre.

Central
Controller

Subsystem Subsystem … Subsystem

1 2 n

A Large Scale System (LSS) composed of n subsystems.

Decentralized Control Systems: If control action is governed from several control centers and there is no information
exchange between controllers then it is called a Decentralized Control System.

Controller Controller … Controller

1 2 n

Subsystem Subsystem … Subsystem

1 2 n

A Large Scale System (LSS) composed of n subsystems.

Distributed Control Systems: If control action is governed from several control centers and the controllers exchange
information between each others, then it is called a distributed control system.

Controller Controller … Controller

1 2 n

Subsystem Subsystem … Subsystem

1 2 n

A Large Scale System (LSS) composed of n subsystems.

2. Plant or Process, G: The system to be controlled. A plant
may be a piece of equipment, perhaps just a set of machine
parts functioning together, the purpose of which is to perform a Comparison unit
(Error detector)

particular operation such as a mechanical device, a heating Forward path Disturbances w(t)

furnace, a chemical reactor, or a spacecraft. Since a system is a

+ Control System
combination of components that act together and perform a Reference r(t)
input
Error e(t)
-
e(t)=r(t) + b(t)
element
Control force u(t)
Manipulated variable
(Controlled Process)
G
Controlled c(t)
variable
D
certain objective, the word of system is not limited to physical -
+
m(t)

ones. The concept of the system can be interpreted to imply b(t)

physical, biological, economic, and the like dynamic

phenomena. Feedback
element
H

•We need to have a mathematical model describing the plant. Feedback path

[Link] input, r: Also known as the set-point or desired

output, is an external signal applied in order to indicate a
desired steady value for the plant output.

4. System output, c: Also known as the controlled output, is the

signal obtained from the plant which we wish to measure and
control. Normally, the controlled variable is the output of the
system.
5. Error detection element or comparison unit compares the
value of the controlled variable to the desired value, and then
signals an error if a deviation exists between the actual and
Comparison unit
(Error detector)

Disturbances w(t)
desired values. The error signal, e, is the difference between the Forward path

reference input r and the feedback signal b. ( i.e. ) Reference r(t) + Error e(t)
Control Control force u(t)
System
Controlled c(t)
input
-
e(t)=r(t) + b(t)
element
D
Manipulated variable
(Controlled Process)
G
variable
m(t)
6. Controller, D, is the element which ensures that the -
+
b(t)
appropriate control signal is applied to the plant. In many cases
it takes the error signal as its input and provides an actuating
Feedback
signal as its output. element
H

Feedback path
7. Control input, u, also known as the actuating signal,
manipulated variable m(t) (control action or control signal) is
applied to the plant G and is provided by the controller D
operating on the error e. The manipulated variable is the
quantity or condition that is varied by the controller so as to
affect the value of the controlled variable. Note that computing
the necessary controller action is based on controller error, or
the difference between the set point and the measured process
variable, i.e. e(t) = r(t) – b(t) (error = set point – measured
process variable)
8. Forward path is the path from the error signal e to the output
c, and includes D and G.
Comparison unit
(Error detector)

9. Disturbance, w, or noise is a signal which enters the system Forward path Disturbances w(t)

at a point other than the reference input and has the effect of
+ Control System
undermining the normal system operation. A disturbance is a Reference r(t)
input
Error e(t)
-
e(t)=r(t) + b(t)
element
Control force u(t)
Manipulated variable
(Controlled Process)
G
Controlled c(t)
variable
D
signal that tends to adversely affect the value of the output of a -
+
m(t)

system. If a disturbance is generated within the system, it is b(t)

called internal, while an external disturbance is generated

outside the system and is an input. Feedback
element
H

10. Feedback element, H can represent the characteristics of Feedback path

the measurement device. Devices (systems) which measures the 13. Feedback Control refers to an operation that, in the
output of the plant. presence of disturbances, tends to reduce the difference
between the output of a system and some reference inpu. Here
11. Feedback signal, b, is the signal produced by the operation only unpredictable disturbances are so specified, since
of H on the output c (t). predictable or known disturbances can always be compensated
for within the system.
12. Feedback path is the path from the output c, through H.
14. Actuators: Devices which set the values of the plant/process
inputs to those dictated by the controller. It is in the G blok
Best Designed System Human Body
 Examples of Control Systems
• Speed Control System

• Temperature Control System

• Position Control System

• Pressure Control System

• Altitude Control System

• Moisture Control System

• Mass Flow Control System

More Control Systems Examples
 Aerospace and Military Applications:
 Flights (Autopilot Control Applications ,Take off and Landing control),
 Space Shuttles (Orbit Tracking Control Applications, Take off and Landing, etc.),
 Unmanned vehicles,
 Missile guidance and control, etc.

 Noise and Active Vibration Control:

 Earthquake protection using active or semi-active vibration control,
 Vibration suppression in aero plane wings and helicopter blades,
 Automobile suspensions,
 Noise canceling headphones.

 Computer systems:
 Position control systems for printers , CD/DVD drives and Hard drives.
 Network and Internet traffic control.

 Robotic Systems:
 Position, speed and force control for Assembly robots,
 Balancing and motion control of humanoid robots ,
 Precision control of Robots for Medical operations,
 Mobile robots
 Biological systems :
 Insulin delivery control systems,
 Tumor growth control, etc.
 Artificial limbs, prosthetics,etc..

 Automobile industry :
 Anti-lock brake system,
 Automatic car parking assistance,
 Cruise control, etc.

 Manufacturing systems:
 CNCs,
 Automatic packing machines,
 Assembly lines.

 Process control :
 Chemical processes,
 Nuclear power plants,
 Complex manufacturing processes

 Power systems control:

 Voltage regulation in power networks for safe electricity delivery.
Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Control
A. Open-loop control systems

Basic open-loop control system: control action is independent of the output. No measurement is fed back !!

Systems in which the output quantity has no effect upon the input quantity are called open loop control systems.

 For a given input, the system produces a certain output.

 If there are any disturbances, the output changes and there is no adjustment of the input to bring back the
output to the original value.

 A perfect calibration is required to get good accuracy and the system should be free from any external
disturbances.

No measurements are made at the output to validate if it is desired quantity.

 Elements of an open - loop control system.
Examples:
A traffic control system is a good example of an open loop system.
The signals change according to a preset time and are not affected by the density of traffic on any road.

A washing machine is another example of an open loop control system. The quality of wash is not measured;
every cycle like wash, rinse and dry cycle goes according to a preset timing.

•Advantage of open-loop architecture is simplicity of implementation. Simple construction and ease of maintenance. Less
expensive than a corresponding closed-loop system.

•Disadvantage of open-loop architecture is extreme sensitivity to disturbances and to unmodeled aspects of process.
Disturbances and changes in calibration cause errors, and the output may be different from what is desired. To maintain the
required quality in the output, recalibration is necessary from time to time.

•Feedforward can be combined with feedback to achieve performance goals. This proves to be a fruitful approach in many
applications.
 B. Closed-loop (Feedback) control systems:

Fig. 1.4. Basic closed-loop control system

• A system which maintains a prescribed relationship between the controlled variable and the reference input, and uses the
difference between them as a signal to activate the control, is known as a feedback control system.

• The output or the controlled variable is measured and compared with the reference input and an error signal is generated.
This is the activating signal to the controller which, by its action, tries to reduce the error. Thus the controlled variable is
continuously fed back and compared with the input signal. If the error is reduced to zero, the output is the desired output
and is equal to the reference input signal.
 Fig. 1.5. Elements of a closed-loop control system.

Closed loop systems

 are more complex,
 use more number of elements to build and are costly.
 are insensitive to external disturbances and variations in parameters.
 maintenance is more difficult than open loop systems.
Performance Specifications:
• Control systems are designed to perform specific tasks.
• The requirements imposed on the control system are usually spelled out as performance specifications.
• The specifications may be given in terms of transient response requirements (such as the maximum
overshoot and settling time in step response) and of steady-state requirements (such as steady-state error in
following ramp input) or may be given in frequency-response terms.
• The specifications of a control system must be given before the design process begins.
• For routine design problems, the performance specifications (which relate to accuracy, relative stability, and
speed of response) may be given in terms of precise numerical values.
• In other cases they may be given partially in terms of precise numerical values and partially in terms of
qualitative statements.
• In the latter case the specifications may have to be modified during the course of design, since the given
specifications may never be satisfied (because of conflicting requirements) or may lead to a very expensive
system.
• Generally, the performance specifications should not be more stringent than necessary to perform the given
task.
• If the accuracy at steady-state operation is of prime importance in a given control system, then we should not
require unnecessarily rigid performance specifications on the transient response, since such specifications
will require expensive components.
• Remember that the most important part of control system design is to state the performance specifications
precisely so that they will yield an optimal control system for the given purpose.
Design Procedures:
• In the process of designing a control system, we set up a mathematical model of the control system and adjust
the parameters of a compensator.
• The most time-consuming part of the work is the checking of the system performance by analysis with each
adjustment of the parameters.
• The designer should use MATLAB or other available computer package to avoid much of the numerical drudgery
necessary for this checking.
• Once a satisfactory mathematical model has been obtained, the designer must construct a prototype and test the
open-loop system.
• If absolute stability of the closed loop is assured, the designer closes the loop and tests the performance of the
resulting closed loop system.
• Because of the neglected loading effects among the components, nonlinearities, distributed parameters, and so
on, which were not taken into consideration in the original design work, the actual performance of the prototype
system will probably differ from the theoretical predictions.
• Thus the first design may not satisfy all the requirements on performance.
• The designer must adjust system parameters and make changes in the prototype until the system meets the
specificications.
• In doing this, he or she must analyze each trial, and the results of the analysis must be incorporated into the next
trial.
• The designer must see that the final system meets the performance specifications and, at the same time, is
reliable and economical.
Control System Design Process:

Determine the Specify the

Construct a
desired control method
mathematical
specifications
model for the
from the
physical system
requirements

Analyse, and Draw the

design the Simplify the Transform the model
block
controller and block/signal from time domain to
diagram
test it if the flow diagram frequency domain
and state
requirements if necessary (obtain the transfer
flow
are met. function)
diagram)
• Lateral Axis

• Longitudinal Axis

• Vertical Axis

• Pitch Motion (Yunuslama)

• Roll Motion (Yatış)

• Yaw Motion (Sapma)

FADEC (Full Authorithy Digital Engine Control)

• Thrust Control

• Shaft Speed Control

• Engine Temperature, Pressure Control

etc.
STABILITY: The FAA's Aviation Maintenance Technician Airframe Handbook
defines stability as:
"The characteristic of an aircraft that causes it to return to its original flight
condition after it has been disturbed."
In simpler terms, stability refers to the aircraft's natural reaction to correct itself back to stable flight after an event has
challenged that, such as a reaction to flight control inputs.

Aircraft stability is related to aerodynamic forces. An aircraft's stability affects the pilot's ability to control the aircraft and
provide a comfortable ride. Aircraft instability can lead to unpredictable behavior or put strain on the structural integrity of
the flight vehicle.

Each of these subcategories can have a major

impact on an aircraft's directional stability
characteristics.

In addition, pitch, roll, and yaw all play a role in

an aircraft's stability, sometimes an aircraft can be
stable in one area and unstable in another. It's all
about finding the right balance for the mission
purpose of the aircraft.
1. Positive Static Stability
In an aircraft exhibiting positive static stability characteristics, particularly in longitudinal stability, the center of gravity is
situated such that when the nose pitches up or down due to external forces, the aircraft naturally returns to its original trimmed
attitude (angle of attack).
A statically stable aircraft tends to regain its trimmed condition following disturbances.
2. Neutral Static Stability
Neutral static stability implies that the aircraft, in its longitudinal aspects, doesn't have a big enough tendency to return to its
original trimmed condition after being disturbed.
For example, when the nose pitches up or down, there's less inherent force pushing the aircraft back to its initial state, resulting in
a balanced equilibrium without a restoring force.
3. Negative Static Stability
Negative static stability in longitudinal aspects signifies an aircraft's tendency to increase a disturbance rather than return to its
original trimmed state.
For example, when the nose pitches up or down, instead of correcting itself, the aircraft continues on its diverging path, potentially
leading to increased deviations and making it challenging to regain the desired flight parameters without continuous intervention.

[Link]
Dynamic Stability

Usually, the goal of engineers is to create dynamically stable aircraft.

The FAA's AMTA Handbook says that dynamic stability refers to:

"When an aircraft is disturbed from the straight and level flight, its static stability starts it back in the correct direction; but it
overshoots, and the corrective forces are applied in the opposite direction.

The aircraft oscillates back and forth on both sides of the correct condition, with each oscillation smaller than the one before it.

Dynamic stability is the decreasing of these restorative oscillations."

In simple terms, dynamic stability is usually evaluated by studying the aircraft's responses to disturbances over time.

To understand how an aircraft responds to external forces or the actions of a pilot's control inputs, engineers rely on

mathematical models and computer simulations. These tools help to determine how quickly the aircraft can stabilize itself

without any intervention from the pilot.

1. Positive Dynamic Stability
Aircraft that show signs of positive dynamic stability experience gradual dampening oscillations after a disturbance. Each
oscillation will be weaker than the previous until the aircraft steadily returns to its original state.
2. Neutral Dynamic Stability
In neutral dynamic stability, the oscillations continue in the same motions following a disturbance, neither increasing nor
decreasing, causing the aircraft to maintain constant deviation from its initial position.
3. Negative Dynamic Stability
Aircraft with negative dynamic stability will experience amplified oscillations after a disturbance. The deviations from the
original state will grow progressively, and worsen without corrective pilot intervention.
Essentially, static stability measures the immediate response while dynamic stability delves into the aircraft's entire behavior
after a disturbance.
Having a lot of stability in the aircraft can make it feel slow, heavy, and less maneuverable.

Most aircraft intended for ferrying passengers are built to be stable, but depending on the design of the flight vehicle,
the stability and control characteristics would need to be different.

For example, fighter aircraft such as the Mirage F-1 are designed to be unstable so they can have more maneuverability
for rolling.

Trainer aircraft such as Cessna 172s are designed to be stable, so they can easily correct themselves to level flight after
attitude disturbances from weather or pilot control inputs.
 REFERENCES
• Prof. Osman PARLAKTUNA, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, Introduction to Control Systems Course Lecture
Notes
• Prof. Dr. Levent GÜMÜŞEL, Karadeniz Technical University, Mechanical
Engineering, ME 311, System Dynamics and Control Cource Lecture Notes
[Link]
• [Link]
dynamic-aircraft-stability
• (Ozan Öztürk, Uçak Dinamiğine Giriş, Bölüm 1)