Chapter Five: Computer Aided

Protection
1. Introduction
2. Numeric Relays
3. Load shedding Schemes
4. Special Protection Schemes

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1. Introduction
Power system Protection
Transducer
Circuit breakers
Protective relays
 Transducer
sensor & transformer
Current transformer (CT) & Potential
transformer (PT)

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 Circuit breakers
 Mechanical device
 Energize & interrupt electric circuits
 Protective relays
 Receive signals from transducers & Control circuit
breakers

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Types of Protection
 Apparatus Protection
 Transmission Line Protection
 Transformer Protection
 Generator Protection
 Motor Protection
 Busbar Protection
 System Protection
 Out-of-Step Protection
 Under-frequency Relays
 Islanding Systems
 Rate of Change of Frequency Relays
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2. Numeric Relays
 A numerical relay consists of the following
main subsystems:
Microprocessor
Analog input system
Digital output system
Power supply

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 Numerical relays operate on sampled
signals and adopt digital computations.
 Sampling is the process of converting
analog input signals, such as current and
voltage, into digital input signals.
 In order to protect the relay from large
transients of the input signals a surge filter
is used.
 An anti-aliasing filter is used to avoid possible
errors in reconstructing the input signal
carried out after the A/D Sample/Hold
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 The A/D converts the sample values that
represent the analog input signals into
the digital input signals.
 However, the conversion is not
instantaneous, and for this reason, the A/D
system typically includes a sample-and-
hold circuit.
 The sample-and-hold circuit provides ideal
sampling and holds the sample values for
quantization by the A/D converter.

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 The microprocessor containing the relay
algorithm is the controller of the
numerical relay.
 The microprocessor most often performs
all control, computation, self-test, and
communication functions.
 The algorithm functions as a digital filter
to extract the fundamental component of
the input signal, based on which the
relay operation is carried out.

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 The signal from the digital filter is
compared with the pre-set threshold in
the digital output system.
 The relay operation is decided based on this
comparison.

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3. Load shedding Schemes
Under-frequency load shedding
Under-voltage load shedding

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Under-frequency load shedding
 Under-frequency load shedding (UFLS) is
defined as a coordinated set of controls which
results in the decrease of electrical loads in
the power system.
 This set of possible corrective actions aims at
forcing the perturbed system to a new
equilibrium state (balancing the load and
generation and thus maintaining system
frequency within nominal range).
 The load shedding system is composed of
several stages; each of them is characterized
by tripping frequency, amount of load and12
 The objective of an under-frequency load
shedding scheme is to quickly recognize
generation deficiency within any system and
automatically shed a minimum amount of
load, and at the same time provide a quick,
smooth and safe transition of the system from
emergency situation to a post emergency
condition such that a generation-load balance
is achieved and nominal system frequency is
restored.

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Classification of UFLS
 There are various types of load shedding schemes,
of which may be grouped into two: static
(conventional) load shedding and dynamic load
Shedding.
 In the conventional UFLS scheme frequency
settings, time delay settings and the amount of
load to be shed are constant values.
 The loads to be shed by this system are also
constant load feeders and not selected adaptively.
 In other words, always the same loads are dropped
from the system, regardless of the location of
disturbance.
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 In this method, loads are classified in three
groups of non-vital, semi-vital and vital loads.
 The trend is to shed non vital loads.
 In severe conditions, semi-vital loads may
also be shed.
 In this load shedding scheme, it is better to
have more stages, but with smaller load in
each stage, to minimize over shedding.

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 Moreover, tripping a big block of load at one
time will have a large impact on an already
weakened system.
 However the drawback is that it takes longer
time to stabilize the frequency.

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 Dynamic (adaptive) load shedding curtails
dynamic amount of load at each stage by
taking into account the magnitude of
disturbance, voltage and frequency
characteristic of the system at each stage.
 This allows for the shedding of larger load for
larger system imbalance, and smaller load for
smaller system imbalance.
 Opposed to the static load shedding scheme,
the amount of load to be shed is not fixed at
each stage in dynamic UFLS.
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 Instead, larger amount of load is shed for
larger system imbalance, and smaller load for
smaller system imbalance.
 Hence the time required to settle down the
frequency deviation is less.

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Under-voltage load shedding
 Under-voltage load shedding is a final
measure used to avoid a wide area voltage
collapse when all other effective means are
exhausted.
 The action of shedding load is no different
from other load shedding schemes including
UFLS and overload load shedding.
 The initiation by low voltage, possibly in
combination with other parameters provides
the unique characteristic of this type of
scheme.
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 Detection of low voltages on the transmission
system may indicate the lack of sufficient
reactive power to maintain system stability.
 If other emergency control actions such as
reactive switching are not effective in restoring
system voltages, it may be necessary to shed
load in order to maintain system voltage stability.
 Under voltage load shedding operates when
there is a system disturbance and the voltage
drops to a certain pre-selected level for a certain
pre-selected time period.
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 It is expected that the voltage will then stabilize or
recover to normal levels.
 Loads with high absorption of reactive power are
especially suitable for shedding to prevent voltage
collapse.
 A complicated factor in under-voltage load
shedding schemes is that the voltages may be very
close to normal at the onset of voltage collapse.
 It is the inability of available reactive support to
maintain the voltages that lead to the imminent
wide area voltage collapse and blackout.

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 Because voltage levels may be so close to
normal levels at the onset of collapse, the low
voltage parameter may be supplemented by
other parameters, such as transmission
circuit status, and/or availability of reactive
power reserve.
 The need to measure parameters and initiate
load shedding in diverse locations may
require a true wide area protection system.

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4. Special Protection Schemes(SPSs)
 Power systems size and complexity have grown to
satisfy a larger and larger power demand.
 Phenomena, having a system/global nature,
endangering a normal operation of power systems
have appeared, explicitly:
 Frequency Instability – is inability of a power system
to maintain steady frequency within the operating
limits.
 Voltage Instability – is the inability of a power system
to maintain steady acceptable voltages at all buses in
the system under normal operating conditions and
after being subjected to a disturbance.
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 Transient Angular Instability (also called
Generator’s Out-of-step) – is the inability of the
power system to maintain synchronism when
subjected to a severe transient disturbance.
The resulting system response involves large
excursions of generator angles and is
influenced by the nonlinear power-angle
relationship.
 Local mode of Small-signal Angular Instability
(also mentioned as Generator’s Swinging or
Power Oscillations) – is the inability of the
power system to maintain synchronism under
small disturbances. Such disturbances occur
continually on the system because of small
variations in loads and generation. The term24
  Inter-area mode of Small-signal Angular Instability –
inter-area modes are associated with the swinging of
many machines in one part of the system against
machines in other parts. They are caused by two or
more groups of closely coupled machines being
interconnected by weak ties.
 The character of the dangerous stresses mentioned
above, is usually global, not local.
 Therefore the protection systems, using data from
more locations as well as acting with a wide area
orientation, have been proposed, designed and in
some cases installed to handle them.
 These are most often referred as Special Protection
Schemes (SPS) or sometimes System Protection
Schemes.
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 They are defined as: “… a protection scheme
that is designed to detect a particular system
condition that is known to cause unusual
stress to the power system and to take some
type of predetermined action to counteract
the observed condition in a controlled
manner.
 In some cases, SPSs are designed to detect a
system condition that is known to cause
instability, overload, or voltage collapse.

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 The action prescribed may require the
opening of one or more lines, tripping of
generators, ramping of HVDC power
transfers, intentional shedding of load, or
other measures that will alleviate the problem
of concern.
 Common types of line or apparatus protection
are not included in the scope of interest here.

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Design Criteria
 The four main design criteria, which should
be used for SPS, are:
 Dependability – The certainty that the SPS
operates when required, that is, in all cases
where emergency controls are required to
avoid a collapse.
 Security – The certainty that the SPS will not
operate when not required, does not apply
emergency controls unless they are necessary
to avoid a collapse.

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 Selectivity – The ability to select the correct
and minimum amount action to perform the
intended function, that is, to avoid using
disruptive controls such as load shedding if
they are not necessary to avoid a collapse.
 Robustness – The ability of the SPS to provide
dependability, security and selectivity over the
full range of dynamic and steady state
operating conditions that it will encounter.

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