Chapter One: Introduction to
Microprocessor and Computer
By: Chernet Erdachew
November 5
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1.1. Introduction to
Microprocessors
► A microprocessor is a programmable, clock-driven integrated circuit that
accepts binary data as input, processes it according to instructions stored in
memory, and provides results as output. It is the Central Processing Unit
(CPU) of a computer system. ►Kilobyte (210 bytes = 1,024
►A bit is a binary digit with a value of one or
bytes)
zero.
►Megabyte (220 byte)
►A 4-bit-wide memory location is often called a
►Gigabyte (230 bytes)
nibble.
►1 byte = 8 bits = 23 bits ►Terabyte (240 bytes)
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1.1. Introduction to
Microprocessors
► The microprocessor performs three main tasks for the computer system
1. Data Transfer: Moves data between itself and memory or I/O
systems.
2. Arithmetic & Logic: Performs simple operations (ADD, SUBTRACT,
AND, OR, etc.).
► Software (group
3. Program FlowofControl:
instructions) stored
Makes in the
simple memory
decisions system
(jumps, are executed
loops) to on
microprocessors
change the order of instruction execution.
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1.2. General Architecture of a Microcomputer
►A microprocessor-based computer system consists of three main blocks
System
interconnected by buses (sets of wires carrying similar information).
►The Microprocessor (CPU): The controlling element that executes instructions.
►Memory System: Stores instructions (code) and data. It includes:
►RAM (Read/Write Memory): For temporary data and programs.
►ROM/Flash Memory: For permanent system programs (BIOS).
►I/O (Input/Output) System: Allows communication with external devices (keyboard,
display, disk drives).
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1.2. General Architecture of a Microcomputer
►The microprocessor controls memory and I/O through a series of connections
called buses.
System
►A bus is a common group of wires that interconnect components in a computer
system.
1. The address bus A unidirectional bus that carries the memory or I/O
►In the microprocessor-based
address from the CPU. computer
The widthsystem, threethe
determines buses exist : addressing
memory address, data,
and control.
capacity.
2. The data bus A bidirectional bus that transfers data between the CPU,
memory, and I/O. The width determines how much data is transferred at
once.
3. The control bus contains lines that select the memory or I/O and
cause them to perform a Bonga
read University
or write |operation.
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…continued
►In most computer systems, there are four control bus connections: MRDC
(memory read control), MWTC (memory write control), IORC (I/O read
control), and IOWC (I/O write control).
►Note that the overbar indicates that the control signal is active-low; that is, it is
active when a logic zero appears on the control line.
►The microprocessor reads the
contents of a memory location by
sending the memory an address
through the address bus. Next, it
sends the memory read control
signal to cause the memory to
read data. Finally, the data read
from the memory are passed to the
microprocessor through the data
bus.
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1.3. Evolution of Intel Microprocessors
►Increase in data bus width, address bus width, clock speed, and level of
integration (transistor count). Modern processors feature multiple cores to
Microprocessor Year Data Address Max Key Feature
execute tasks in parallel. Bus Bus Memory
4004 1971 4 - bit - 4 KB First microprocessor, 45
instructions
8080 1974 8 -bit 16 64 KB Ushered in the microprocessor
age
8086/8088 1978/179 16 -bit 20 1 MB First 16-bit processors; basis
for IBM PC
80286 1982 16 -bit 24 16 MB Introduced protected mode
80386 1985 32 -bit 32 4 GB First 32-bit processor, paging
unit
80486 1989 32 -bit 32 4 GB Integrated FPU (math
coprocessor) and cache
Pentium 1993 64 -bit 32 4 GB Superscalar (two instruction
pipelines)
Pentium pro/II 1995-99 64 -bit 34 64 GB Dynamic execution, MMX
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1.4. Architectural Compatibility
►Upward Compatibility: A fundamental reason for the success of the Intel
family. Software written for an earlier processor (e.g., 8086) will run on a newer
one (e.g., Core2) without modification.
►Real Mode: The default mode for all Intel processors on power-up. It mimics the
8086's 1 MB memory limit, ensuring compatibility with older software (like DOS).
►Protected Mode: Available from the 80286 onward. Allows access to extended
memory (above 1 MB) and provides advanced features like memory protection
and multitasking (used by Windows, Linux).
►Instruction Set: The core instruction set is extended with each generation, but
older instructions are retained.
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1.5. Hardware and Software
►Hardware: The physical components of the system (CPU, memory chips, I/O
ports).
►Software: The sequences of instructions (programs) that direct the hardware.
►Machine Language: Binary codes understood directly by the CPU.
►Assembly Language: A low-level language using mnemonics (e.g., MOV, ADD) that
maps closely to machine language. Provides direct control over the hardware.
►High-Level Languages (HLL): Languages like C/C++, Java, Python. They are easier for
programmers but must be translated (compiled) into machine language.
►Operating System (OS): System software (e.g., DOS, Windows) that manages
hardware resources and provides services for application software.
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1.6. Review of Basic Number Systems and
►Computers use binary (base-2) numbers. Hexadecimal (base-16) is a
Conversion
compact way to represent binary numbers.
►Common Number Systems in computer:
1. Decimal (Base-10): Digits 0-9.
2. Binary (Base-2): Digits 0, 1.
3. Hexadecimal (Base-16): Digits 0-9, A-F.
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…..cont’d
Conversion from other bases to decimal
►Multiply each digit by its positional weight and sum the results.
Example: 1101.01₂ = (1×2³) + (1×2²) + (0×2¹) + (1×2⁰) + (0×2⁻¹) +
(1×2⁻²)
= 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 0.25
= 13.25₁₀
110.101₂ = ?
125.7 8 =?
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…..cont’d
Whole Number Conversion from decimal to other bases
►Repeatedly divide the number by the new base. The remainders (from last
to first) form the digits of the new number.
Example: Convert 10₁₀ to binary.
10 / 2 = 5, remainder 0
5 / 2 = 2, remainder 1
2 / 2 = 1, remainder 0
1 / 2 = 0, remainder 1
Result: 1010₂
11010 to base 8?
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…..cont’d
Fraction Conversion from decimal to other bases
1. Multiply the decimal fraction by the radix (number base).
2. Save the whole number portion of the result (even if zero) as a digit. Note
that the first result is written immediately to the right of the radix point.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2, using the fractional part of step 2 until the fractional
part of step 2 is zero. Example: Convert 0.125₁₀ to binary.
0.125 × 2 = 0.25
0.25 × 2 = 0.5
0.5 × 2 = 1.0
Result: 0.001₂
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…..cont’d
• Binary to Hexadecimal:
Group binary digits into sets of four (starting from the binary point).
Convert each group to its hexadecimal equivalent.
Example: 1010 1101 0111₂ = A D 7 = AD7₁₆
• Hexadecimal to Binary:
Convert each hexadecimal digit into its 4-bit binary equivalent.
Example: 3F5₁₆ = 0011 1111 0101₂
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