Unit: 6 Thinking and problem
solving
Meaning and definitions
of thinking
Thinking, reasoning and problem solving
are cognitive activities, considered as chief
characteristics of human beings that
separate human from others
Thinking is for the welfare of human being
Thinking is a complex process and a most
difficult concept to define
However thinking can be defined as:
Meaning and definitions
of thinking
Webster’s New World Dictionary (1988)
defines the word “think” as the general
word which means to exercise the mental
faculties so as to form ideas, arrive at
conclusion etc.
Thinking is the set of cognitive (knowledge)
processes that meditate, or go between,
stimuli and responses.
Meaning of thinking
Thinking is connoted (mean) with
understanding imagination and discussion.
Thinking is a complex mental process and
difficult to differentiate from learning,
remembering, and imagination.
It is an active process in which the mind
controls and regulates the movement of
idea in a purpose way.
Thinking is problem solving with symbols.
Thinking can be best described as the
mental manipulation of images, symbols,
concepts, rules, and other meditational
Meaning of thinking
Thinking is a problem solving activities.
Thinking may involve trial and error.
Imagination, symbols, cues may be used as
the tools of thinking.
Purposive thinking leads to invention,
exploration.
Past experiences are used in thinking.
Thinking is also reasoning.
Thinking is a symbolic behavior.
Tools of thinking
1. Symbol and sign
2. Images
3. Concepts
4. Language
5. Muscle activities
6. Brain function
Tools of thinking
1. Symbol and sign or language
Thinking involves word symbols, rules of
grammar to join and make sentences that
are stored in semantic long term memory.
In a symbol, system words are important
component but there are also symbolic
languages (e.g., like red cross, swastika,
etc.) that convey similar meaning like the
words.
Tools of thinking
People think in symbols and language is a
rich symbolic process.
Symbols and signs convey meaning and
help immensely in forming images and
aiding in thinking process.
Tools of thinking
2) Images
Images are mental pictures but usually
incomplete.
They are abstracts and stored in the long
term memory.
Whenever we think of certain object or
event we visualize them in their absence.
Images can be auditory, olfactory, visual,
gustatory, cutaneous and kinesthetic.
For e.g., you can recall the mental pictures
of the picnic with your friends where you
listened good music (auditory),
Enjoyed foods (gustatory),
Smelled the flowers around the picnic spot
(olfactory),
Good sceneries (visual),
Danced with your friend each other’s hand
(cutaneous) and so on.
Mental imagery is greatly used in sports
and in music.
Athletes use them while in training phase.
Sport psychologists have advocated visual
imagery as a practice technique to enhance
performance in sports and in rehabilitating
injuries.
Research evidences show that mental
practice can activate brain structures which
aids in performance.
It also helps on a task for better results.
3) Concept
Hilgard and others state “ when a symbol stands for
a class of objects or events with common
properties, we say that it refers to a concept”
Concepts are mental representation of a class of
objects, people, events, things that share common
characteristics e.g., animals, furniture, vegetable,
etc.
Cauliflower, beans, cabbages are example of the
concept ‘vegetables’.
Red, green, white, etc. are the concepts of color.
Flower is a concept but an individual flower is not a
concept.
Concepts help to reduce our mental efforts
and makes communication easier with
relative ease.
Concepts make learning and thinking easier
and economical.
It is developed through reasoning.
Concept grow gradually.
It differs from culture to culture and
individual to individual.
As a person matures, he uses complex and
higher concepts e.g., if you think about the
concept mango you may go to different
Language:
People use language in the thinking.
Language is a tool for thought.
With language symbols individual can
think and communicate.
Muscle activities: correlation between
muscle activities and thinking
Brain Function: thinking is a function of
brain, we talked this in Nervous system
Types of thinking
1. Perceptual or concrete thinking: simplest,
thinking on the basis of perception
2. Conceptual or abstract thinking: use
concepts, generalized ideas and language,
3. Reflective thinking: aims at solving complex
problems, needs organization of relevant
experience, mental activity, logic
4. Creative thinking: to create something new
5. Non directed or Associative thinking: on the
basis of dream, fantasy, dreaming
Divergent Thinking
Divergent thinking is the ability to generate
multiple possibilities in a given situation.
Divergent thinking takes our thinking in
different directions in search of multiple
answers to a question.
It is more related to creativity.
It is loosely organized, partially directed, and
unconventional (unusual).
Divergent thinkers more easily break out pre-
fixed mental sets that limit our thinking.
Good divergent thinking tends to be creative
which yield novel ideas and solutions.
Divergent thinker use variety of thought to
solve a problem for e.g., what are the
uses of a brick?
‘Heat- to keep your bed room warm’, ‘as a
weapon’, ‘to hold the shelves of a
bookcase’, etc.
This kind of thinking is more closely related
to creativity than convergent thinking.
Convergent thinking
Convergent thinking brings together all the
information and knowledge focused on the solution
of a problem that has well defined correct answer.
Convergent thinking is logical, factual, conventional
(predictable), and focused on a problem until a
solution is focused.
It is concerned with a particular end result.
The result of convergent thinking is usually a
solution that has been previously arrived at by
someone else.
Convergent thinking is not the type of thinking
people primarily use when they think creatively.
When you are asked to name the capital of
Nepal, you would use convergent thinking
skills to provide the answer.
Most formal education system emphasizes
the teaching and assessment
(measurement) of convergent teaching.
Students are encouraged to discover the
right answers, to judge their ability.
Process of concept
formation
i. Abstraction
ii. Generalization
Process of concept
formation
[Link]
Abstracting is observing the similarity
among different things in a common even
if they differ.
For example, tree is a concept, people
see something in common when they
think about a tree, but there are several
varieties of trees.
Take another example of mango, we find
several kind of mangoes even then we
can draw common things in them.
Abstraction helps to detect essential
ii. Generalization
When one abstracts or isolates some common
properties of the objects, integration of these
properties is important.
Integration or combination of the characteristics
leads to a development of a single mental unit
making it qualitatively different from other concept.
Application of this unit or concept to all other
similar objects that possess similar qualities
is called generalization.
Generalization is a process of deriving a principle
from varied experiences.
Process of concept
formation
Once generalized, we expect to find this
property in all future members of the class.
Generalization is the basis of all prediction.
Problem solving
Any conflict or difference between one
situation and another situation we wish to
produce- our goal.
Problem-solving is a process of overcoming
difficulties that appear to interfere with the
attainment of a goal.
Problem solving is something different from
other type of thinking.
It is the use of thinking process to
overcome obstacles and work toward goal
but all attempts to solve the problem is not
thinking.
Problem solving
Skinner: Problem solving is a process of
overcoming difficulties that appear to
interfere with the attainment of a goal. It is
the process of making adjustment in spite
of interferences
Problem solving behavior occurs in novel or
difficult situations.
Ways of problem
solving
There are varieties of problems and
approaches to solve them.
There is no one single, precise process to
solve the problem.
However all agree that whether simple or
complex problems there are some steps in
problem solving.
Planning is must in problem solving
thinking.
Planning means thinking ahead, deciding
where to go, what step to follow, deciding
when plan is working and when the
Ways of problem solving
a) Algorithms
An algorithm is a technique which, if followed
correctly can guarantee a solution.
An algorithm is a list of set procedures, a
recipe, a formula, or set of exact directions-
computer programs and math formulas for
finding volumes and areas.
There are a couple of algorithms.
When the problems are well defined, there is a
exact procedure for answer.
Procedures for addition or subtraction, for
example, are algorithms.
Ways of problem solving
b) Heuristic
It is a strategy usually based on our past experience that
are likely to lead to a solution but do not guarantee
success.
For most problems, algorithms do not exist but useful
strategies often do.
Heuristic is a procedure that helps to solve a problem.
Heuristics never guarantee a solution, but simply
increases the probability of finding a solution.
There are many types of heuristic: working backward
heuristic, means end heuristic, etc.
A heuristic is a guide, a rule of thumb, a learning typified
(characterized) by trial and error.
It involves choice, knowledge, and a lot of creativity.
Steps in problem solving
i. Clear definition of the problem
ii. Verification of the problem (by
collecting the relevant material)
iii. Deriving a number of possible
solutions (develop hypothesis)
iv. Evaluation of suggested solutions
(selecting one hypothesis and rejecting
other hypothesis)
v. Verification of hypothesis ( by using
test or other approaches)
vi. Implementation of solution
Steps in problem solving
i. Clear definition of the problem
In problem solving activities the problem
should be unambiguous, comprehensive and
soluble.
However, definition of the problem depends on
the characteristics of a problem solver.
The same problem is conceived differently by
different persons and selects different
approaches to arrive at the solution.
Perception or definition of problem influences
the approach to be adopted for thinking.
Thus, problem should be clearly defined.
Steps in problem solving
ii)Verification of the problem
The process of verification of the problem is done
through collecting relevant information.
The person while thinking to solve a problem must
examine minutely the situation with which s/he
has to work to solve the problem.
Each and every alternative, the authenticity of the
problem, its consequences should be taken into
consideration.
It is the stage of preparation.
To prepare oneself one should verify the problem
and its importance and authenticity.
Steps in problem solving
iii) Deriving a number of possible
solutions
This is the process of developing
hypothesis.
Or we can say developing more than one
solution of the problem.
As a result of working out in one’s head,
various possible ways to solving the
problem may occur.
There can be more than one solution with
various consequences.
The person should take into consideration
Steps in problem solving
iv) Evaluation of suggested solutions
In this stage the solutions are tested.
Derivations and systematic arrangements of
various probable solutions are judged and
evaluated in terms of certain criterion.
In the process of testing the tentative (unsure)
solutions most of them are rejected.
Rejection of hypothesis is based on their
applicability to solve the problem as well as on
the consequences.
The best solution with minimum negative
consequences is selected.
Steps in problem solving
v) Verification of hypothesis
This is the process of finding out whether
the selected solution (hypothesis) is correct
or not by using test or revision of the
solution.
The particular hypothesis considered
adequate is put to objective test.
This means hypothesis should be put into
test.
If found good, the hypothesis is accepted
and confirmed and if not, new facts may be
sought and new observation may be made.
Steps in problem solving
The new facts may confirm the hypothesis,
or prove it fallacious or suggest for revision.
In scientific, artistic and even everyday life,
tentative solutions are subjected to careful
tests before they are accepted for practical
use.
This is the stage of verification in creative
thinking.
Steps in problem solving
vi) Implementation of the solution
This is the last stage of the problem solving
activity in which the objectively validated
solution is put in to use.
In this way, the solution of the problem is
accomplished.
The goal is achieved.
Role of mental set in problem
solving
Set is a temporary orientation, expectation, or state
or readiness to respond in a particular stimulus
situation.
For e.g., in Japan most of the people are
mentally ready or set for the earthquake.
It is preparedness for the action.
Set immensely influence the process of thinking,
learning, memory, and perception.
Set indicates mental preparedness.
It provides direction for thinking.
Different psychologists have successfully
demonstrated that set influences positively in
solving the problems.