UNIT V : DIELECTRICS

UNIT - V

DIELECTRICS

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UNIT V : DIELECTRICS

UNIT - V: DIELECTRICS

(5 Hrs)

Introduction, Polarization in a dielectric material, Local field or internal field

in a solid dielectric material, Clausius-Mossotti equation (Derivation),
Dielectric loss, Dielectric breakdown, Frequency dependence of polarization,
Temperature dependence of polarization, Applications of dielectric material,
Ferroelectric material.

References:
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Course Outcome (CO):

At the end of the course students will be able
 To analyse characteristics and behaviour of dielectric materials and apply this to practical
applications.

Objectives:
 To learn polarization concepts in dielectric materials and their mechanisms.
 To understand dielectric losses and breakdown mechanisms' impacts.
 To study frequency and temperature effects on dielectric polarization
behavior.
 To know about dielectric material applications and ferroelectric properties. 3
UNIT V : DIELECTRICS

Introduction:
o Dielectrics are crucial in electrical engineering for their unique properties.
o They do not conduct electricity but respond to electric fields.
o Dielectrics create local electric dipoles when exposed to an electric field.
o An electric dipole consists of opposite charges separated by a distance.

o The electric dipole moment () is defined as the total charge (q) of one kind (positive or
negative, as both are equal) multiplied by the distance () between the two kinds of charges.
i.e., =q
o Dielectrics store electrical charges and must be good insulators.
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Dielectrics

Polar Non-Polar

 Center of the gravity of the positive charges in the  Center of gravity of positive charges coincide
molecule does not coincident with the center of with the center of gravity of negative charge.
gravity of the negative charges.  Their dipole moment is zero.
 They possess a permanent electric dipole moment.  Under electric field all the molecules align
 Under electric field all the molecules almost align themselves in the direction of the applied
itself in the direction of the applied electric field. electric field and produce net dipole moment.
 Example: Water  Example: Methane 5
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Polarization in a dielectric material:

o Polarization in a dielectric material refers to the process by which the material develops an
internal electric field when placed in an external electric field.

o External fields reorient dipoles in dielectrics, shifting charges and inducing dipole moments.

o Positive charges move with the field; negative charges oppose it.

o Induced dipoles in dielectrics reduce the net electric field, opposing the external field.

o Polarization mechanisms: electronic, ionic, and orientational.

o Understanding polarization is essential for optimizing capacitors, insulators, and electrical

systems performance.
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Parameters of dielectric
materials Dielectric constant (or relative permittivity) of a dielectric is defined as the
ratio of capacitance of a capacitor containing the dielectric medium to the
capacitance of the same capacitor with air as the medium.
Dielectric Constant ( where C0 is the capacitance with air as the medium between the plates
and C is the capacitance with dielectric as medium.
is a dimensionless quantity, it gives the measure of the ability of a
substance to store electrical energy when placed in an electric field.
Permittivity of the medium
= 8.854 × 10-12 F/m is permittivity of free space.

The dielectric polarization (also called polarization or polarization density)

at any point of the dielectric is defined as the electric dipole moment per
unit volume at that point. Polarization is a macroscopic property of the
material.
Dielectric Polarization () where ni represents number of individual particles (atom, ion, molecules
etc), pi is the dipole moment of these particles, N is the number of particles
per unit volume of the dielectric and p is the net dipole moment of the
dielectric. 7
UNIT V : DIELECTRICS

Parameters of dielectric
materials How easily a dielectric material can be polarized when subjected to an
electric field is measured by the parameter called electric susceptibility. In a
homogeneous isotropic dielectric material the polarization is proportional to
Electric susceptibility (χ) the applied weak electric field .
Hence, the polarization is written as,

where is the permittivity of free space and χ is the electric susceptibility of

the material.

The electric displacement field is a vector field that describes the

displacement effects of an electric field on the charges within a dielectric
material, such as polarisation charges or bound charges.
It is defined by the equation,

Displacement vector () It has a unit of coulombs per square meter (C/m²).

Since and

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Parameters of dielectric
materials Polarizability usually refers to the tendency of matter, when subjected to an
electric field, to acquire an electric dipole moment in proportion to that
applied field.
Polarizability (α) When the dielectric is subjected to external electric field, an electric dipole
moment is induced on every particle (atom, ion, dipole), which is given by
=α
where is the induced dipole moment, is the electric field, and α is the
constant of proportionality, called the polarizability of that particle.. It is a
microscopic electrical parameter of a dielectric. In cgs system, the
polarizability α is expressed as cm3 and its SI unit is Fm2.

Electronic (or atomic) polarizability (α el)

Components of Polarizability Ionic (or displacement) polarizability (αion)

Dipolar (or orientational) polarizability (αdip)

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 UNIT V : DIELECTRICS

Electronic (or atomic) polarizability (αel)

Electronic polarization occurs when an electric field distorts the

electron cloud of an atom relative to its nucleus, displacing the
electron cloud to a distance less than the atom's dimensions.

When an external static electric field is applied across the dielectric, polarizability
R is the radius of atom.

When an alternating electric field of angular frequency ω is applied across the dielectric, polarizability
ω0 is the natural frequency of oscillation of electrons
m is the electron mass
e is the electronic charge
Z is the atomic number
The frequency lies in the UV region. As atoms of the dielectric starts absorbing energy from the source and at the
maximum absorption of energy takes place at natural frequency. This phenomenon is commonly called resonance
absorption. 10
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Ionic (or displacement) polarizability (αion)

Ionic polarization occurs due to the displacement of adjacent cations

(positive ions) and anions (negative ions) in opposite directions due to
applied electric field.

If an alternating electric field of angular frequency ω is applied along x-direction.

Then ionic polarizability, and displacement of the positive ions of mass M +
and negative ions of mass M- respectively.
where is the natural frequency of the lattice vibration. where M is reduced mass of ion pair.

If then , is called Debye frequency, which is in the IR region.

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 UNIT V : DIELECTRICS

Dipolar (or orientational) polarizability (αdip)

Orientation polarization, occurs when an external

electric field aligns asymmetric molecules' dipoles,
which are randomly oriented and cancel each other out
in the absence of the field. It is found in polar
dielectrics with permanent dipole moments.

For a system of N permanent dipoles with dipole moment , subjected to an external electric field , the dipolar
(or orientational) polarizability is given by,

where kB is Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature.

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Total Polarizability (tot)

Total polarization, P = N(αel + αion + αdip)E

Hence, total polarizability, αtot = αel + αion + αdip

i.e.,

Orientation polarization does not exist in non-polar dielectrics. Similarly, ionic polarization will not be found in
covalently bonded materials. Electronic polarization will be negligible compared to orientation polarization in
polar dielectrics.
Usually, αion << αel, therefore αtot = αel + αdip

This is known as Langevin-Debye equation.

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Space-charge polarization

Space-charge polarization occurs whenever there is

accumulation of charges at an interface between two
materials or between two regions within a material
due to an applied electric field on the dielectric.

 This process takes a longer time and typically Key contributors to space-charge polarization are:
occurs at low frequencies. a) Material heterogeneity.
b) Electrode effects.
 Space charge polarization is also known as
c) Defects and impurities.
interfacial or migrational polarization. d) Grain boundaries.
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Frequency dependence of polarization

2 2 2
𝑍𝑒 /𝑚 𝑒 /𝑀 𝑝
𝛼 𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2 + +
( 𝜔0 − 𝜔2 ) ( 𝜔2 − 𝜔2 ) 3 𝑘 𝐵 𝑇

Low-Frequency (Static to Radio Frequency) region: At low

frequencies, up to the radio frequency (RF) range, dielectric
materials exhibit all types of polarization namely, electronic,
ionic, dipolar and space-charge polarization. Consequently, the
dielectric constant remains relatively high in this range.

Ultra-High Frequency (UHF) to Microwave Range: As the

frequency increases into the ultra-high frequency (UHF) and
microwave ranges, dipolar relaxation processes begin to
dominate. In this frequency range, the polarizability starts to
decrease because the dipoles cannot reorient quickly enough to
follow the rapidly oscillating field. This results in a decrease in
the dielectric constant. 15
UNIT V : DIELECTRICS

Infrared (IR) Region: In the infrared region, the polarizability

of dielectrics continues to decrease. Ions do not follow the
oscillations applied electric field, and they start to relax. The
sharp peaks in polarizability in the IR region are often due to
vibrational resonances of the molecules.

Ultraviolet (UV) Region: At ultraviolet frequencies, electronic

polarization becomes the dominant mechanism. The
polarizability significantly decreases because the electric field
oscillates too rapidly for the electrons to respond fully. In this
region, the polarizability is characterized by sharp peaks
corresponding to electronic transitions within the material. In
this optical region, the material's relative permittivity is equal to
the square of its refractive index i.e., .

Beyond the ultraviolet range, the electron cloud too fails to

follow the field alternations and electronic contribution to the 2
𝑍𝑒 /𝑚
2
𝑒 /𝑀 𝑝
2
polarization ceases. Consequently, the total polarization 𝛼 𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2 + +
becomes zero and the relative permittivity approaches unity ( 𝜔0 − 𝜔2 ) ( 𝜔2 − 𝜔2 ) 3 𝑘 𝐵 𝑇
i.e., . 16
 UNIT V : DIELECTRICS

Temperature dependence of polarization

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The electronic and ionic polarization do not depend on 𝑁𝑝
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒=
temperature and remain constant at all temperatures. However,
P 3 𝑘𝐵

the orientation polarization is inversely proportional to the

N(e+i)
temperature and decreases as the temperature increases.
𝟐
𝑵𝒑 𝑬 1
P = N(αel + αion + αdip)E 𝑷 =𝑵 ( 𝜶 𝒆 +𝜶 𝒊 ) 𝑬 + 𝑇
𝟑 𝒌𝑩 𝑻

 For a given electric field E, the intercept of the line with y-axis at 1/T = 0 gives the value of N(e+i) from

which (e+i) can be evaluated.

 The dipole moment p can be computed from the slope of the straight line, knowing the value of N, the
number of molecular dipoles per cubic meter.
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Local field (or internal field) in a solid dielectric material

In dielectric solids, the atoms or molecules experience not only the

external applied electric field but also the electric field produced by
the dipoles within the material. The resultant electric field felt by one
particle (mostly an atom) of the material at its position is called the
local field or an internal field.

Consider an ellipsoidal dielectric is kept in an uniform Macroscopic field,

electric field . In this case the induced polarized charges
is polarization, γ is depolarizing factor, is
produce a uniform electric field which is exactly opposite to
permittivity of free space.
the applied field, this is called depolarizing field.
From Lorentz method, the electric field
Thus, electric field at a point A in the ellipsoid depends on :
contributions from all dipoles is given by
a) Applied electric field
Hence, the local electric field,
b) Depolarizing field due to surface charges
c) Effect of all dipoles in the solid. This equation is known as Lorentz equation,

Here is called macroscopic field .

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 UNIT V : DIELECTRICS

Clausius-Mossotti equation

The Clausius-Mossotti equation provides a bridge between the dielectric constant (macroscopic parameter) of a
material and the polarizability (microscopic parameter) of its constituent molecules, atoms or ions. This is crucial for
understanding how the internal structure and composition of a material influence its overall electrical behaviour.

The polarizability αi of ith atom is defined in terms of the local electric field at the atom and the dipole moment as,

If there are N atoms (or molecules) per unit volume of the solid and there are Ni atoms (or molecules) having polarizability αi
then

Now, Polarization

where is the local field at the atoms of the ith species.

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UNIT V : DIELECTRICS

Thus,

Now, relative permittivity or dielectric constant,

where χ is the electrical susceptibility of the dielectric and is given by,

i.e.,

Now,

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Thus,

If α is the average polarizability of the atom or molecule then the polarizability per unit volume is
Hence,

This is famous Clausius-Mossotti relation between the dielectric constant ( and the polarizability (α) for the crystal
structures which follow the Lorentz local field relationship.

Further, in most of the optical materials and dielectrics, the dielectric constant is equal to the square of its refractive
index i.e., .
Hence,

This is known as Lorentz-Lorentz relation.

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2. Two parallel plates have equal and opposite charges. They are separated by a
dielectric material with dielectric constant 3. If the electric field intensity in the
dielectric is 106 V/m, calculate the polarization in the dielectric. Permittivity of free
space m-3 kg-1 s4 A2.

Solution: Given: , E = 106 V/m, P = ?

Polarization, and or

C/m2

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UNIT V : DIELECTRICS

6. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor increases from 0.085F to

0.195F when a sheet of polythene is placed between the plates. Determine the
dielectric constant of the polythene.
Solution:

Given: C0 = 0.085F, C = 0.195F,

Dielectric constant is given by,

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UNIT V : DIELECTRICS

10. The atomic weight and density of sulphur are 32 and 2.08 gm/cm3
respectively. The electronic polarizability of the atom is 3.28 × 10 -40 F.m2. If
sulphur solid has cubic symmetry, what will be its relative permittivity?
(Ans: 3.8)

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Dielectric loss and loss tangent

Dielectric loss is the dissipation of electrical energy as heat in a dielectric material subjected to an alternating
electric field, due to the frictional movement of dipoles aligning with the field.

In the case of an ideal dielectric (perfect insulator), polarization is complete during each cycle and there is no consumption
of energy and the charging current leads the applied voltage by 90º.
But for commercial dielectric (lossy dielectric), the phase angle is less than 90º by an angle  . It is called dielectric loss
angle. Tan is taken as measure of dielectric loss and is known as loss tangent (tan ). It represents the electrical power lost
which is often in the form of heat. Hence tan  is also called dissipation factor.

The lossy dielectric can be described with the aid of a complex relative permittivity given by,
where the real part is called dielectric constant, which represents the stored energy and the imaginary part is called
dielectric loss, which represents the lost energy.

The dissipation factor or loss tangent (tan ) can also be written as,

The product is known as the loss factor.

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Dielectric Breakdown and Dielectric Strength

Dielectric breakdown is the irreversible process where a dielectric material becomes a conductor due to the
separation of the electron cloud into free electrons when subjected to a high electric field, causing the material to
lose its insulating properties and start conducting.

The dielectric strength of a material is a measure of the ability of that material to withstand high electric fields.
Maximum electric field that a dielectric can withstand before dielectric breakdown occurs is called dielectric
strength.

Hence, dielectric strength is the limiting electric field intensity, above which a breakdown occurs and the charge
storage property of the dielectric disappears.
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Applications of dielectric materials

 Dielectrics can be solids (porcelain, ceramics), liquids (oil, water), gases (air, SF6), and vacuum.

 Solid dielectrics like porcelain and glass are widely used in electrical engineering applications.

 Dielectrics act as insulators needing low loss, high resistance, strength, stability, and moisture

resistance.

 Capacitors use dielectrics like paper, plastic, ceramic, mica, glass, or electrolytes.

 Liquid dielectrics in transformers provide insulation, cooling, and prevent overheating and short

circuits.
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Ferroelectric material

Ferroelectric materials are a crucial group of dielectrics that exhibit spontaneous polarization due to their
anisotropic crystal structure. This spontaneous polarization, occurring without an external electric field,
results from internal processes that cause a resultant dipole moment when the centers of gravity of positive
and negative charges do not coincide.

 The materials, which possess special structure that permits spontaneous polarization, are called ferroelectrics and
the phenomenon of spontaneous polarization is called ferroelectricity.

 Ferroelectricity was first discovered in Rochelle salt (NaKC4H4O6 ⋅ 4H2O). Barium titanate, potassium

phosphate, and potassium niobate are other examples of ferroelectrics.

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The main characteristics of ferroelectric substances are as follows:

1. They possess very high values of relative permittivity r ranging from 1,000 to 10,000.

2. The static dielectric constant of ferroelectric material changes with temperature according to the relation:

This equation is called Curie-Weiss law. Where C is a constant called Curie’s constant and TC is the Curie
temperature.

3. They possess spontaneous electric polarization, that is, polarization without the help of an external electric
field. However, the spontaneous polarization occurs only within a definite temperature range and up to the
Curie temperature TC.

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4. In a ferroelectric, the dielectric polarization

depends nonlinearly on the applied electric field.
In ordinary dielectrics, the polarization varies
linearly with the applied electric field. Because of
this, ferroelectrics are known as nonlinear
dielectrics. They exhibit hysteresis under the
action of an alternating voltage. The polarization
versus electric field curve is known as a
ferroelectric hysteresis loop.

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Applications of ferroelectric materials

 Ferroelectric materials are useful for fabricating capacitors with tunable capacitance. These capacitors are
used in medical ultrasound devices to create and detect ultrasound waves for body imaging, in high-quality
infrared cameras to sense tiny temperature changes, in fire sensors, sonar, vibration sensors, and diesel
engine fuel injectors.

 The unique hysteresis property of ferroelectric materials allows them to store memory, making them ideal for
ferroelectric RAM in computers and Radio-frequency identification (RFID) cards.

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UNIT V : DIELECTRICS

13. The polarizability of NH3 molecule is found experimentally by the measurement of

dielectric constant as 2.42  10-39 Fm2 at 309K and 1.74  10-39 Fm2 at 448K respectively.
Calculate for each temperature the polarizability due to permanent dipole moment and due to
deformation of molecules. Given: tot(309) = 2.42  10-39 Fm2, tot(448) = 1.74  10-39 Fm2, dip = ?, el = ?

We have, where

Hence, …… (1)

…… (2)

Equation (1) – (2) gives,

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UNIT V : DIELECTRICS

Substituting in eq (1) gives, electronic polarizability due to deformation of molecules,

Now, dipolar polarizability due to permanent dipole moment,

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14. A dielectric material has r = 4.94 and n2 = 2.69. Calculate the ratio between electronic
and ionic polarizability of this material.

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Questions:
1. What is meant by electric dipole moment?
2. What are polar and non-polar dielectrics?
3. Explain polarization in a dielectric material.
4. What do you understand by dielectric constant? Define dielectric susceptibility.
5. Define dielectric polarization and polarizability of a dielectric.
6. Explain displacement vector in dielectrics.
7. With relevant mathematical expressions explain electronic, ionic and orientational polarizabilities.
8. Discuss the frequency dependence of various polarization processes in dielectric materials.
9. What is space-charge polarization? Explain.
10. Discuss the effect of temperature on electronic, ionic and orientational polarization.
11. What is meant by local field in a dielectric and how it is calculated for a cubic structure.
12. Derive Clausius-Mosotti relation in dielectrics.
13. Write a note on dielectric loss. Explain loss tangent and loss factor.
14. Explain dielectric breakdown and dielectric strength.
15. What is the role of dielectrics in capacitors and transformers?
16. What is meant by spontaneous polarization?
17. What is ferroelectricity? Mention the main characteristics of ferroelectric materials.
18. Mention the applications of ferroelectric materials. 35
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Problems to be solved in the class:

2. Two parallel plates have equal and opposite charges. They are separated by a dielectric material with dielectric
constant 3. If the electric field intensity in the dielectric is 10 6 V/m, calculate the polarization in the dielectric.
Permittivity of free space m-3 kg-1 s4 A2. (Ans: C/m 2)

6. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor increases from 0.085F to 0.195F when a sheet of polythene is placed
between the plates. Determine the dielectric constant of the polythene. (Ans: 2.29)

10. The atomic weight and density of sulphur are 32 and 2.08 gm/cm 3 respectively. The electronic polarizability of the
atom is 3.28 × 10-40 F.m2. If sulphur solid has cubic symmetry, what will be its relative permittivity? (Ans: 3.8)

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 UNIT V : DIELECTRICS

Problems to be solved in the class:

13. The polarizability of NH3 molecule is found experimentally by the measurement of dielectric constant as
2.42  10-39 Fm2 at 309K and 1.74  10-39 Fm2 at 448K respectively. Calculate for each temperature the polarizability
due to permanent dipole moment and due to deformation of molecules.

(Ans: , , )

14. A dielectric material has r = 4.94 and n2 = 2.69. Calculate the ratio between electronic and ionic polarizability of
this material. (Ans: 1.73)

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THANK YOU

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