INTRODUCTION TO

TRANSLATION Ms. Noor Shah

STUDIES
 INTRODUCTION
The word "translation" comes from the Latin word which means “a
carrying across” or “a transfer.” (to bring or carry across)
It is derived from transferre, where trans- means “across” and ferre
means “to carry.”
The term was initially used to refer to the process of transferring
meaning or ideas from one language to another. Over time, it evolved
into the modern meaning we associate with translating written or
spoken content from one language to another
Another explaining phrase is "metaphrasis," which was derived from
Ancient Greek, meaning "to speak across."
Finally, from the word metaphrasis, the word metaphrase was derived to
mean "word for word translation".
 Translation is the process of transferring written or
spoken text from one language (the source language)
into another (the target language), aiming to convey
meaning, tone, style, and context.
 The key concepts and the historical development of
translation can be understood through the evolution of the
practice and its theoretical foundations.
 HISTORICAL DEVELEPOMENT OF
TRANSLATION
1. ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS (BEFORE THE 4TH CENTURY BCE)

Sumerians and Egyptians: The earliest forms of translation emerged

in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. Sumerian cuneiform tablets
were often translated into Akkadian or other regional languages, mainly
for trade, legal, and religious purposes. In Egypt, translation was
similarly linked to official documents and religious texts.
The Bible and the Septuagint (3rd Century BCE): One of the most
significant early translation projects occurred when Jewish scholars in
Alexandria translated the Hebrew Bible into Greek. This translation is
known as the Septuagint, and it marked a pivotal moment in the
history of translation, especially because it allowed Greek-speaking
Jews to access their sacred texts. The Septuagint had a profound
influence on later Christian theological thought and translation
practices
 2. CLASSICAL AND MEDIEVAL
TRANSLATION
(4TH TO 15TH CENTURY)
Roman Empire (1st Century BCE - 5th Century CE): During the Roman Empire,
translations were used to spread Greek philosophy and literature to Roman
audiences.
For instance, the works of Plato, Aristotle, and Homer were translated into Latin,
which allowed Roman citizens and scholars to engage with the intellectual heritage of
Greece. Latin became the lingua franca of scholarship throughout much of Europe for
centuries.
St. Jerome and the Vulgate (4th Century): Perhaps one of the most influential
translation projects in Western history is St. Jerome’s Latin Vulgate Bible.
Commissioned by Pope Damasus I, Jerome translated the Hebrew and Greek texts of
the Bible into Latin. This became the standard Bible for Western Christianity for over a
millennium. Jerome’s translation philosophy emphasized the need for both literal
accuracy and clarity, and his work laid the foundation for later debates about the role of
faithfulness and meaning in translation.
Medieval Translation (5th-15th Century): During the Middle Ages,
translation was largely confined to religious texts and was undertaken mainly
by monks and scholars.
The Arab scholars of the Golden Age (8th to 13th century) made significant
contributions to translation, especially in the translation of Greek scientific
and philosophical works into Arabic. This preserved many classical works,
such as those of Aristotle, which would later be translated back into Latin,
sparking the intellectual revival of the Renaissance.
a) The Translations of Arabic Science and Philosophy: The Arabic-
speaking world became a center for preserving and expanding upon the
knowledge of the ancient Greeks. Key philosophical, scientific, and medical
texts were translated from Greek and Syriac into Arabic, making it possible
for scholars in Europe to access these works during the later Middle Ages.
b) Medieval Translations of Classical Texts: In the 12th century, during
the Renaissance of the 12th Century, scholars in Europe translated
major works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and others from Arabic or Greek into
Latin. These translations were crucial in transmitting classical knowledge
to the Christian world, influencing the development of philosophy,
astronomy, medicine, and theology.
 3. RENAISSANCE AND EARLY
MODERN PERIOD (15TH TO
18TH CENTURY)
Printing Press and Increased Translation Activity: The
invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the
15th century had a monumental impact on the spread of translated
texts. Translations became more widely distributed, leading to an
explosion in the translation of literature, scientific texts, and
religious works.
Humanism and the Revival of Classical Texts: During the
Renaissance, the humanist movement emphasized the return to
original sources, often Greek and Latin texts. Erasmus of
Rotterdam, for example, published a new Latin translation of the
New Testament based on Greek manuscripts, challenging the
Vulgate's interpretation of certain passages. Translators of this
period often sought to combine respect for the original text with a
growing interest in style and readability.
Translation of the Bible and Religious Reformation: The Protestant
Reformation in the 16th century saw a huge push for translating the Bible
into vernacular languages. Martin Luther's translation of the Bible into
German was influential in shaping the Protestant faith and made the
scriptures accessible to a broader audience. This was part of a broader
movement where vernacular translations of the Bible were seen as vital for
personal religious engagement.

Philosophical and Literary Translations: By the 17th and 18th

centuries, translation was not only about religious texts but also involved
literary, philosophical, and scientific works. Voltaire, Rousseau, and other
Enlightenment thinkers were often read in translation, and translation
became a key means of spreading Enlightenment ideals across Europe.
 4. 19TH CENTURY AND EARLY
20TH CENTURY: RISE OF
TRANSLATION THEORY
Romanticism and the Elevation of Translation as Art: In the
19th century, particularly with the rise of Romanticism, translation
began to be viewed not just as a linguistic activity, but as a
creative art. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich
Schleiermacher began emphasizing the importance of translating
the “spirit” of a text, not just its literal meaning. This shift
highlighted the subjectivity of translation and its creative potential.
Schleiermacher’s Contribution: In the early 19th century,
German philosopher and theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher
argued that translators could either bring the text closer to the
target language or make the text’s foreignness more apparent.
He introduced the dichotomy of domestication (adapting the text
to the target culture) and foreignization (preserving the
foreignness of the original text), which remains a central debate in
Early Translation Studies: Translation started being
recognized as a scholarly field. Eugene Nida (in the mid-20th
century) would go on to develop dynamic equivalence,
focusing on how translation should preserve the meaning and
impact of the source text, rather than just its form.
 5. 20TH CENTURY TO THE PRESENT:
THE RISE OF TRANSLATION
STUDIES AND TECHNOLOGY
Translation Studies as an Academic Discipline: In the 20th century, translation evolved
into an academic discipline. The 1970s marked the formalization of Translation Studies,
particularly with the work of scholars like James Holmes, who is considered the father of
modern Translation Studies. Holmes proposed a new approach that looked at translation from a
holistic perspective, encompassing both practical and theoretical aspects.
Machine Translation: The development of machine translation (MT), starting with Google
Translate and other systems in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, has transformed the
field of translation. While early machine translation systems struggled with accuracy and
context, modern systems use artificial intelligence (AI) and neural networks to produce
increasingly sophisticated translations.
Cultural Turn in Translation: Post-colonial translation theory emerged in the late 20th
century, examining the power relations embedded in translation. Translation is seen as a
political act, with issues such as cultural representation, identity, and the legacy of colonialism
at the forefront of discussion. Scholars like Lefevere and Bassnett explored how translation
shapes cultural narratives and the exchange of power between languages and cultures.
Globalization and Localization: In the 21st century,
translation has become central to globalization and
localization. With the proliferation of digital content,
websites, apps, and social media platforms, the demand for
fast and culturally relevant translation is higher than ever.
Localization has become essential for businesses and services
that operate across different countries, requiring translations
that consider cultural nuances, idiomatic expressions, and
market preferences.
HOLMES AND TOURY’S 'MAP' OF
TRANSLATION STUDIES
The ‘theoretical’ branch is divided into general and partial theories.
General theories: try to explain all forms of translation and offer
broad principles. Partial theories: on the other hand, focus on
specific aspects or types of translation.

Descriptive translation studies (DTS) looks at three things:

(1) The product
(2) The function
(3) the process:
Product-oriented (DTS): focus on analyzing existing translations. This could
involve studying one translation or comparing multiple translations of the same
original text in different languages. Smaller studies can build into larger ones
that look at a specific time, language, or type of text. Larger studies can either
examine changes over time (diachronic) or focus on a particular moment
(synchronic). According to Holmes, one long-term goal of product-oriented DTS
could be to create a general history of translations.
Function-oriented (DTS): focus on the role translations play in their social
and cultural context, rather than just the texts themselves. It looks at things
like when and where books were translated and what impact they had. Holmes
calls this area "socio-translation studies," which today would likely be
referred to as cultural-studies-oriented translation. While this type of research
was less common when Holmes wrote his paper, it is now a more popular area
of study in translation studies
Process-oriented (DTS): focus on understanding the psychology of
translation—specifically, what happens in a translator's mind during the
process. While there has been some research using methods like think-aloud
protocols (where translators verbalize their thoughts while translating), this
area of study is only now being explored in a more structured way.
Medium-restricted theories: focus on different types of translation, such
as machine vs. human translation. They also look at whether the machine
works alone or with human assistance, whether the translation is written or
spoken, and whether spoken translation (interpreting) is consecutive or
simultaneous.
Area-restricted theories: are restricted to specific languages or groups of
languages and/or cultures. Holmes notes that language-restricted theories
are closely related to work in contrastive linguistics and stylistics
Rank-restricted theories: are linguistic theories that focus on a specific
level, usually the word or sentence.
Text-type restricted theories: look at specific discourse types or genres;
e.g. literary, business and technical translation.
The term time-restricted is self-explanatory, referring to theories and
translations limited according to specific time frames and periods. The
history of translation falls into this category
Problem-restricted theories: can refer to specific problems such as
equivalence – a key issue of the 1960s and 1970s – or to a wider question of
whether universals of translated language exist.
THE ‘APPLIED’ BRANCH
OF HOLMES’S
FRAMEWORK CONCERNS:
Translator training: teaching methods, testing
techniques, curriculum design
Translation aids: such as dictionaries, grammars
and information technology
Translation criticism: the evaluation of
translations, including the marking of student
translations and the reviews of published
translations