Head, Complements, and Modifiers

Chapter 4
J Kim ,Peter Sells
Head, Complements, and Modifiers Chapter 4
J Kim ,Peter Sells
 Internal & External syntax
• The combinatory properties of words and phrases involve two aspects of syntax:
internal
• and external syntax.1 Internal syntax deals with how a given phrase itself is
constructed in a
• well-formed manner whereas external syntax is concerned with how a phrase can be
used in a
• larger construction. Observe the following examples:
• (1) a. *John [put his gold].
• b. *John [put under the bathtub].
• c. *John [put his gold safe].
• d. *John [put his gold to be under the bathtub].
• e. John [put his gold under the bathtub].
• Why is only (1e) acceptable?
 Why is only (1e) acceptable?
1e. John [put his gold under the bathtub].
• Simply, because only it satisfies the condition that the verb put selects an NP and a PP as its
complements, and it combines with them in the VP. In the other examples, this condition is not
fulfilled. This combinatory requirement starts from the internal (or lexical) properties of the verb put,
and is not related to any external properties of the VP.
• In contrast, the external syntax is concerned with the external environment in which a phraseoccurs.
Some of the unacceptable examples in (1) can be legitimate expressions if they occur in the proper
(syntactic) context.
• (2) a. This is the box in which John [put his gold]. (cf. (1a))
• b. This is the gold that John [put under the bathtub]. (cf. (1b)).
• Meanwhile, the well-formed VP in (1e) can be unacceptable, depending on external contexts.
• For example, consider frame induced by the governing verb kept in (3):
• (3) a. *The king kept [put his gold under the bathtub].
• b. The king kept [putting his gold under the bathtub].
• The VP put his gold under the bathtub is a well-formed phrase, but cannot occur in (3a) since this is
not the environment where such a finite VP occurs That is, the verb kept requires the presence of a
gerundive VP like putting his gold under the bathtub, and therefore imposes anexternal constraint on
VPs.
4.1.2 Notion of Head, Complements, and
Modifiers

• One important property we observe in English phrase-internal syntax is that in building up

any phrase, there is one obligatory element in each phrase. That is, each phrase has one
essential element as represented in the diagrams in (4):

The head of an NP is thus N, the head of a VP isV, and the head of an AP

is A.

• The circled element here is the essential, obligatory element within the given phrase. We
call this essential element the head of the phrase. The head of each phrase thus
determines its‘projection’ into a larger phrasal constituent.
Notion of Headedness,
Complements
• Notion of headedness plays an important role in the grammar. For example, the verb
put, functioning as the head of a VP, dictates what it must combine with – two
complements, NP and PP. Consider other examples:
• (5) a. The defendant denied the accusation.
• b. *The defendant denied.
• (6) a. The teacher handed the student a book.
• b. *The teacher handed the student.

• The verb denied here requires an NP object whereas handed requires two NP
complements, in this use. The properties of the head verb itself determine what kind of
elements it will combine with. As noted ,the elements which a head verb should
combine with are called complements
 Complements
• The complements include direct object, indirect object, predicative , complement, and
oblique complement since these are all potentially required by some verb or other.
• The properties of the head become properties of the whole phrase. Why are the examples in
(7b) and (8b) ungrammatical?
• (7) a. They [want to leave the meeting].
• b. *They [eager to leave the meeting].
• (8) a. The senators [know that the president is telling a lie].
• b. *The senators [certain that the president is telling a lie].
• The examples in (7b) and (8b) are unacceptable because of the absence of the required
head.
• The unacceptable examples lack a finite (tensed) VP as the bracketed part, but we know that
English sentences require a finite VP as their immediate constituent, as informally
represented as in (9):
(9) English Declarative Sentence Rule: Each declarative sentence must contain a finite VP as its
head.
• Each finite VP is headed by a finite verb. If we amend the ungrammatical examples above to
include a verb but not a finite one, they are still ungrammatical:
• (10) a. *They [(to) be eager to leave the meeting].
• b. *The senators [(to) be certain that the president is telling a lie].
Modifiers (or also called adjuncts)

• (11) a. Tom [VP [VP offered advice to his students] in his office].
• b. Tom [VP [VP offered advice to his students] with love].

• The PPs in his office or with love here provide further information about the action

described by the verb, but are not required as such by the verb. These phrases are

optional and function as modifiers, and they function to augment the minimal phrase

projected from the head verb offered. The VP which includes this kind of modifier forms

a maximal phrase. We might say that the inner VP here forms a ‘minimal’ VP which

includes all the ‘minimally’ required complements, and the outer VP is the ‘maximal’ VP

which includes optional modifiers

Summary
• a. Head: A lexical or phrasal element that is essential in forming a phrase.
• b. Complement: A phrasal element that a head must combine with or a head select.
• These include direct object, indirect object, predicative complement, and oblique
• complement.
• c. Modifier: A phrasal element not selected by the verb functions as a modifier to the
• head phrase.
• d. Minimal Phrase: A minimal phrase is the phrase including this head and all of its
• complements.
• e. Maximal Phrase: A maximal phrase is the phrase that includes complements as
well
• as modifiers.
Types of Complements in Syntax
• A complement is a phrase or clause that is required by a verb to complete its
meaning. In English, complements can take different forms, including direct
objects, indirect objects, predicative complements, and oblique
complements.
• 1. Direct Object (DO)
• A direct object is the noun phrase (NP) that receives the action of the verb
directly. It answers the question "what?" or "whom?" after the verb.
• Examples:
• She bought a book. → (What did she buy? → a book = direct object)
• They watched the movie. → (the movie = direct object)
• Key Features:
• Usually comes immediately after the verb.
• Cannot be omitted without making the sentence incomplete.
[Link] Object (IO)
• An indirect object is the noun phrase that receives the direct object. It usually refers to a
person who benefits from or is affected by the action. It answers "to whom?" or "for
whom?" after the verb.
• Examples:
• She gave her friend a gift.
• Direct object = a gift
• Indirect object = her friend (who receives the gift)
• They sent their teacher an email.
• Direct object = an email
• Indirect object = their teacher (who receives the email)
• Key Features:
• Comes before the direct object in double-object constructions (gave her friend a gift).
• Can be rephrased with to/for:
• She gave a gift to her friend.
• They sent an email to their teacher.
Predicative Complement (Subject or Object
Complement)

• A predicative complement describes or renames either the subject or object

of the sentence. It provides additional information but does not receive the
action.
• Types of Predicative Complements:
• A) Subject Complement (SC) (Also called Predicate Nominative or Predicate
Adjective)
• Follows linking verbs (e.g., be, seem, become, appear, feel) and describes the
subject.
• Examples:
• She is a teacher. (a teacher = subject complement renaming she)
• The food smells delicious. (delicious = subject complement describing the food)
B) Object Complement (OC)

• Renames or describes the direct object. Usually follows verbs like consider, make,
name, elect, call.
• Examples:
• They elected her president.
• Direct object = her
• Object complement = president (describes her)
• I find this book interesting.
• Direct object = this book
• Object complement = interesting
• Key Features:
• Appears after linking verbs (for subject complements).
• Appears after causative/perception verbs (for object complements)
4. Oblique Complement
(Prepositional Object)
• An oblique complement is a noun phrase or prepositional phrase that completes the meaning of a
verb but cannot be rephrased as a direct/indirect object. It is required by the verb but introduced
by a preposition.
• Examples:
• She put the keys on the table.
• Direct object = the keys
• Oblique complement = on the table (required to complete the meaning of put)
• He relied on his friends.
• Oblique complement = on his friends (required by relied)
• Key Features:
• Usually introduced by a preposition.
• Cannot be restructured like an indirect object (She gave her friend a gift → She gave a gift to her
friend, but you can't say He relied his friends on).
• Some verbs require an oblique complement (depend on, listen to, look at).
Adjuncts in Syntax

• An adjunct is an optional element in a sentence that provides

additional information but is not required for the grammaticality of
the sentence. Adjuncts can be adverbs, prepositional phrases,
adverbial clauses, noun phrases, or adjectives.
• Adjunct vs. Complement
• Adjuncts are optional and provide extra information.
• Complements are necessary to complete the meaning of the verb.
• ✅ *She ate the cake (complement – required).
✅ *She ate the cake slowly (adjunct – optional).
 4.2 Differences between Complements and
Modifiers
• Given these notions of complements and modifiers, the question that follows is then how we can
distinguish between complements and modifiers. There are several tests to determine whether a
phrase is a complement or a modifier.
• Obligatoriness: As hinted at already, complements are strictly-required phrases whereas
modifiers are not. The examples in (13)–(15) show that the verb placed requires an NP and a PP
as its complements, kept an NP and a PP or an AP, and stayed a PP.
• (13) a. John placed Kim behind the garage.
• b. John kept him behind the garage.
• c. *John stayed Kim behind the garage.
• (14) a. *John placed him busy.
• b. John kept him busy.
• c. *John stayed him busy.
• (15) a. *John placed behind the counter.
• b. *John kept behind the counter.
• c. John stayed behind the counter.
• In contrast, modifiers are optional. Their presence is not required by the grammar:
• (16) a. John deposited some money in the bank.
• b. John deposited some money in the bank on Friday.
In (16b), the PP on Friday is optional here, serving as a modifier.
Phrase Structure (PS) Rules in
Syntax
• Phrase Structure (PS) Rules, also called Immediate Constituent Rules,
describe how words and phrases are organized hierarchically in a
sentence. They specify how larger linguistic units (e.g., sentences,
noun phrases, verb phrases) are constructed from smaller
components.
4.3 PS Rules, X-Rules, and
Features
• Two main issues arise with the content of PS rules.
• The first is related to the headedness of each phrase, often called the ‘endocentricity’
property of each phrase. Let us consider the PS rules that we saw in the previous
chapters. We have seen that PS rules such as those in (29) can characterize well-
formed phrases in English, together with an appropriate lexicon:
• (29) a. S → NP VP
• b. NP → Det AdjP∗ N
• c. VP → V (NP) (VP)
• d. VP → V NPAP
• e. VP → V NPNP
• f. VP → V S
• g. AP → A VP
• h. PP → P NP
• i. VP → Adv VP
pg.56/302
Another limit that we can find from the simple PS rules concerns an issue of redundancy.
Observe the following:
(31) a. *The problem disappeared the accusation.
b. The problem disappeared.
(32) a. *The defendant denied.
b. The defendant denied the accusation.
(33) a. *The boy gave the book.
b. The boy gave the baby the book.
What these examples show is that each verb has its own requirement for its complement(s).
For example, deny requires an NP, whereas disappear does not, and gave requires two NPs as
its complements. The different patterns of complementation are said to define different
subcategories
of the type verb. The specific pattern of complements is known as the ‘subcategorization’
requirement of each verb,which can be represented as following (IV: intransitive, TV: transitive,
DTV: ditransitive):
(34) a. disappear: IV,
b. deny: TV, NP
c. give: DTV, NP NP
PS Rules, X Rules and Features

Chapter 4: Sells topic 4.3