BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT-1
CHAPTER-II
 Basic Engineering material
• Stones, bricks, cement, lime and timber are
the traditional materials used for civil
engineering constructions for several
centuries.
• In this chapter types, properties, tests and
uses of these materials is explained.
 1. STONES
• Stone is a ‘naturally available building material’ which
has been used from the early age of civilization.
• It is available in the form of rocks, which is cut to
required size and shape and used as building block.
• It has been used to construct small residential
buildings to large palaces and temples all over the
world.
• Red Fort, Taj Mahal, Vidhan Sabha at Bangalore and
several palaces of medieval age all over India are the
famous stone buildings.
• Type of Stones :
• Stones used for civil engineering works may be
classified in the following three ways:
• • Geological
• • Physical
• • Chemical
 Geological Classification
• Based on their origin of formation stones are classified into three
main groups—Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
• (i) Igneous Rocks: These rocks are formed by cooling and
solidifying of the rock masses from their molten magmatic
condition of the material of the earth.
• Generally igneous rocks are strong and durable. Granite, trap and
basalt are the rocks belonging to this category,
• Granites are formed by slow cooling of the lava under thick cover
on the top. Hence they have crystalline surface.
• The cooling of lava at the top surface of earth results into non-
crystalline and glassy texture. Trap and basalt belong to this
category.
• (ii) Sedimentary Rocks:
• Due to weathering action of water, wind and frost existing rocks
disintegrates.
• The disintegrated material is carried by wind and water; the
water being most powerful medium.
• Flowing water deposits its suspended materials at some points
of obstacles to its flow.
• These deposited layers of materials get consolidated under
pressure and by heat.
• Chemical agents also contribute to the cementing of the
deposits. The rocks thus formed are more uniform, fine grained
and compact in their nature.
• They represent a bedded or stratified structure in general. Sand
stones, lime stones, mud stones etc. belong to this class of rock.
• (iii) Metamorphic Rocks:
• Previously formed igneous and sedimentary
rocks under go changes due to metamorphic
action of pressure and internal heat.
• For example due to metamorphic action
granite becomes greisses, trap and basalt
change to schist and laterite, lime stone
changes to marble, sand stone becomes
quartzite and mud stone becomes slate.
• Physical Classification Based on the structure,
the rocks may be classified as:
• • Stratified rocks
• • Unstratified rocks
• (i) Stratified Rocks:
• These rocks are having layered structure.
• They possess planes of stratification or
cleavage. They can be easily split along these
planes.
• Sand stones, lime stones, slate etc. are the
examples of this class of stones.
• (ii) Unstratified Rocks:
• These rocks are not stratified. They possess crystalline
and compact grains.
• They cannot be split in to thin slab.
• Granite, trap, marble etc. are the examples of this type
of rocks.
• (iii) Foliated Rocks:
• These rocks have a tendency to split along a definite
direction only.
• The direction need not be parallel to each other as in
case of stratified rocks. This type of structure is very
common in case of metamorphic rocks.
 Chemical Classification
• On the basis of their chemical composition engineers prefer to classify
rocks as:
• • Silicious rocks
• • Argillaceous rocks and
• • Calcareous rocks
• (i) Silicious rocks: The main content of these rocks is silica. They are hard
and durable. Examples of such rocks are granite, trap, sand stones etc.
• (ii) Argillaceous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is argil i.e.,
clay. These stones are hard and durable but they are brittle. They cannot
withstand shock. Slates and laterites are examples of this type of rocks.
• (iii) Calcareous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is calcium
carbonate. Limestone is a calcareous rock of sedimentary origin while
marble is a calcareous rock of metamorphic origin.
 Uses of Stones:

• Stones are used in the following civil engineering constructions:

• (i) Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundations,
walls, columns and arches.
• (ii) Stones are used for flooring.
• (iii) Stone slabs are used as damp proof courses, lintels and even
as roofing materials.
• (iv) Stones with good appearance are used for the face works of
buildings. Polished marbles and granite are commonly used for
face works.
• (v) Stones are used for paving of roads, footpaths and open
spaces round the buildings.
• (vi) Stones are also used in the constructions of
piers and abutments of bridges, dams and retaining
walls.
• (vii) Crushed stones with graved are used to
provide base course for roads. When mixed with
tar they form finishing coat.
• (viii) Crushed stones are used in the following
works also: (a) As a basic inert material in concrete
(b) For making artificial stones and building blocks
(c) As railway ballast.
 BRICKS
• Brick is obtained by moulding good clay into a block,
which is dried and then burnt.
• This is the oldest building block to replace stone.
• Manufacture of brick started with hand moulding,
sun drying and burning in clamps.
• A considerable amount of technological
development has taken place with better knowledge
about to properties of raw materials, better
machinaries and improved techniques of moulding
drying and burning.
 Bricks
•Bricks are obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and
then by drying and burning these blocks. As bricks are of uniform size, they can
be properly arranged, light in weight and hence bricks replace stones.

•2.1 Composition - Manufacture Process.

•Composition – Following are the constituents of good brick earth.

•Alumina: - It is the chief constituent of every kind of clay. A good brick earth
should contain 20 to 30 percent of alumina. This constituent imparts plasticity to
earth so that it can be moulded. If alumina is present in excess, raw bricks shrink
and warp during drying and burning.
•Silica-A good brick earth should contain about 50 to 60 percent of silica. Silica
exists in clay either as free or combined form. As free sand, it is mechanically
mixed with clay and in combined form; it exists in chemical composition with
alumina. Presence of silica prevents crackers shrinking and warping of raw
bricks. It thus imparts uniform shape to the bricks. Durability of bricks depends
on the proper proportion of silica in brick earth. Excess of silica destroys the
cohesion between particles and bricks become brittle.

•Lime – A small quantity of lime is desirable in finely powdered state to prevents

shrinkage of raw bricks. Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and hence, its
shape is last due to the splitting of bricks.
•Oxide of iron- A small quantity of oxide of Iron to the extent of 5 to
6 percent is desirable in good brick to imparts red colour to bricks.
Excess of oxide of iron makes the bricks dark blue or blackish.

•Magnesia- A small quantity of magnesia in brick earth imparts

yellow tint to bricks, and decreases shrinkage. But excess of
magnesia decreases shrink leads to the decay of bricks.

•The ingredients like, lime, iron pyrites, alkalies, pebbles, organic

matter should not present in good brick earth
•Manufacture of bricks:

•The manufacturing of brick, the following operations are involved

1. Preparation of clay

2. Moulding

3. Drying

4. Burning
 Preparation of clay :- The preparation of clay involves following
(i)
operations

) Unsoiling :- Top layer of 20cm depth is

a

removed as it contain impurities.

b) Digging: - Clay dug out from ground is spread on level ground about 60cm to 120cm
heaps.
c) Cleaning:-Stones, pebbles, vegetable matter etc removed and converted into powder
form.

d) Weathering:- Clay is exposed to atmosphere from few weeks to full season.

e) Blending:- Clay is made loose and any ingradient to be added to it is spread out at top
and turning it up and down in vertical direction.

f) Tempering:- Clay is brought to a proper degree of hardness, then water is added to

clay and whole mass is kneaded or pressed under the feet of men or cattle for large
scale, tempering is usually done in pug mill as shown in the fig 2.1
• The size of the bricks are of 190 mm × 90 mm
× 90 mm .With mortar joints, the size of these
bricks are taken as 200 mm × 100 mm × 100
mm
• Classification of Bricks Based on their Quality The bricks used in
construction are classified as:
• (i) First class bricks
• (ii) Second class bricks
• (iii) Third class bricks and
• (iv) Fourth class bricks
• (i) First Class Bricks: These bricks are of standard shape and size.
They are burnt in kilns. They fulfill all desirable properties of bricks.
• (ii) Second Class Bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and burnt
in kilns. The edges may not be sharp and uniform. The surface may
be some what rough. Such bricks are commonly used for the
construction of walls which are going to be plastered.
• (iii) Third Class Bricks: These bricks are ground
moulded and burnt in clamps. Their edges are
somewhat distorted. They produce dull sound
when struck together. They are used for
temporary and unimportant structures.
• (iv) Fourth Class Bricks: These are the over
burnt bricks. They are dark in colour. The
shape is irregular. They are used as aggregates
for concrete in foundations, floors and roads.
• Uses of Bricks
• Bricks are used in the following civil works:
• (i) As building blocks.
• (ii) For lining of ovens, furnaces and chimneys. (iii)
For protecting steel columns from fire.
• (iv) As aggregates in providing water proofing to
R.C.C. roofs.
• (v) For pavers for footpaths and cycle tracks.
• (vi) For lining sewer lines.
TIMBER:

• The wood which is suitable or fit for

engineering construction or engineering
purpose is called timber.
• WOOD:
The organic matter obtained from trees is
called wood.
•Timber denotes wood, which is suitable for
building or carpentry or various other
engineering purposes like for construction of
doors, windows, roofs, partitions, beams, posts,
cupboards, shelves etc
Structure of a Tree
 TYPES OF TREES

Trees are classified into two groups

depending upon growth pattern.
(1) Endogenous trees:
The trees grow inwards and fibrous mass is
seen in their longitudinal sections are called
endogenous trees.
Ex: Bamboo, cane, palm etc.
(2) Exogenous tress :

•These trees which grow in out wards across

horizontal section of stem, increase in bulk by
growing outwards and distinct rings are formed
in the horizontal section ,one such ring is added
every year. These trees are only fit for
engineering construction.
•Exogenous trees are again subdivided
in to two types.
Conifers or ever – green trees:
• These trees bear cone – shaped fruits, so that
they are given the name conifers.
• These trees yield soft woods which are
generally light coloured , light in weight .
• Ex: Deodar , Pine , Chir , Kail, etc
Deciduous trees or Broad – leaf trees:

• These trees fall in autumn and new ones

appear in spring season .The timber for
engineering purposes is mostly derived from
deciduous trees.
• These trees yield hard woods which are
usually close – grained , strong ,heavy , dark
coloured & durable.
• Ex: Teak, Sal, Shisham etc.
 Market forms of timber
• The timber obtained from trees is cut into
suitable commercial sizes and shapes for
various engineering purposes.
• Some of the common market forms of timber
are listed below.
• Market Forms of Timber
• Following are the different forms of timber available in the market.
• Log
• Baulk
• Board
• Batten
• Plank
• Pole
• Deal
• Scantling
• End
• Quartering
• 1. Log
• The trunk of a dead tree obtained after
removal of branches is called log. It can be
converted into any other or required form of
timber.
• 2. Baulk
• Baulk is a roughly square-shaped piece of
timber obtained by removing the bark and
sapwood from the timber log.
• The general cross-sectional dimensions of balk
are greater than 50 mm x 50 mm and its
length may be greater than 200 mm.
• [Link]
• It is a piece of timber which is rectangular in
its cross-section. Its thickness lies between 50
to 100 mm and breadth varies from 125 mm
to 175 mm.
• 4. Plank
• A plank is a piece of timber whose thickness is
less than 50 mm and breadth is greater than
50 mm.
• 5. Board
• A timber is called board when its thickness is
less than 50 mm and breadth is greater than
150 mm.
• 6. Pole
• A pole is a round-shaped long piece of timber.
The maximum diameter of a pole is about 200
mm. It is also called as a spar.
• 7. Deal
• A Deal is a converted form of softwood log. It
is generally rectangular in cross-section. The
thickness of deal varies from 50 mm to 100
mm and breadth is limited up to 250 mm.
• 8. Scantling
• Scantlings are the pieces of timber with
nonstandard sizes. These are sawn out timber
to a required size depending upon the work.
The shape of the cross-section also changes
according to the requirement. However, In
general, the length of scantling is limited to
200 mm.
• 9. Quartering
• Quartering is a square piece of timber. Its
length varies from 50mm to 150mm.
• 10. End
• The short pieces of battens, deals, scantlings,
poles, quartering, etc. are called as ends.
 Characteristics of good timbers:

1. Appearance: A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit hard and of shining appearance.

2. Colour: A colour should preferably be dark

3. Defects: A good timber should be free from series defects such as knots, flaws, shakes etc

4. Durability: A good timber should be durable and capable of resisting the action of fungi,
insects, chemicals, physical agencies, and mechanical agencies.

5. Elasticity: The timber returns to its original shape when load causing its deformation is
removed

6. Fibres: The timber should have straight fibres

7. Fire resistance: A dense wood offers good resistance to fire

7. Hardness: A good timber should be hard

7. Mechanical wear: A good timber should not deteriorate easily due to mechanical wear or abrasion
8. Shape: A good timber should be capable of retaining its shape during conversion or seasoning
9. Smell: A good timber should have sweet smell. Unpleasant smell indicates decayed timber

10. Sound : A good timber should give a clear ringing sound when struck
11. Strength: A good timber should be sufficiently strong for working as structural member such as joist,
beam, rafter etc.

12. Structure: The structure should be uniform

13. Toughness: A good timber should be tough (i.e.) capable of offering resistance to shocks due to vibration
14. Water permeability: A good timber should have low water permeability, which is measured by the quantity
of water filtered through unit surface area of specimen of wood.
15. Weathering effects: A good timber should be able to stand reasonably the weathering effects (dry & wet)
16. Weight: The timber with heavy weight is considered to be sound and strong.
17. Working conditions: Timber should be easily workable. It should not clog the teeth of saw.
SEASONING OF TIMBER:

•As fresh timber which is obtained from trees

contains about 30 to 40% sap or moisture. This
sap is very harmful for the life of a timber.
•Therefore, it is necessary to remove that sap by
applying some special methods. All those
methods which are used for removing the sap
from timber are collectively termed as
seasoning of timber.
Advantages of seasoned timber:

• It has reduced weight

• It is strong and durable
• It has resistance to decay or rot,
• It takes high polish,
• It is easier to work,
• Its life is more.
Types of Timber Seasoning:
•The main types of timber seasoning are as
under.
•(1)Natural Seasoning,
(2)Artificial Seasoning,
(a) Kiln Seasoning,
(b) Chemical Seasoning,
(c) Electric Seasoning,
•(3) Water Seasoning,
 CEMENT
• Cement is a commonly used binding material in
the construction.
• The cement is obtained by burning a mixture of
calcarious (calcium) and argillaceous (clay)
material at a very high temperature and then
grinding the clinker so produced to a fine powder.
• It was first produced by a mason Joseph Aspdin
in England in 1924. He patented it as portland
cement.
• Types of Cement In addition to ordinary
portland cement there are many varieties of
cement.
• Important varieties are briefly explained
below:
• (i) White Cement: The cement when made
free from colouring oxides of iron, maganese
and chromium results into white cement.
• In the manufacture of this cement, the oil
fuel is used instead of coal for burning. White
cement is used for the floor finishes,
plastering, ornamental works etc.
• In swimming pools white cement is used to
replace glazed tiles. It is used for fixing
marbles and glazed tiles.
• (ii) Coloured Cement: The cements of
desired colours are produced by
intimately mixing pigments with
ordinary cement.
• The chlorium oxide gives green
colour.
• Cobalt produce blue colour. Iron
oxide with different proportion
produce brown, red or yellow colour.
Addition of manganese dioxide gives
black or brown coloured cement.
• These cements are used for giving
finishing touches to floors, walls,
window sills, roofs etc.
• (iii) Quick Setting Cement: Quick setting cement is
produced by reducing the percentage of gypsum
and adding a small amount of aluminium sulphate
during the manufacture of cement.
• Finer grinding also adds to quick setting property.
This cement starts setting within 5 minutes after
adding water and becomes hard mass within 30
minutes.
• This cement is used to lay concrete under static or
slowly running water.
• (iv) Rapid Hardening Cement: This cement can be
produced by increasing lime content and burning
at high temperature while manufacturing cement.
• Grinding to very fine is also necessary.
• Though the initial and final setting time of this
cement is the same as that of portland cement, it
gains strength in early days.
• This property helps in earlier removal of form
works and speed in construction activity.
• (v) Low Heat Cement: In mass concrete works
like construction of dams, heat produced due to
hydration of cement will not get dispersed easily.
• This may give rise to cracks.
• Hence in such constructions it is preferable to
use low heat cement.
• This cement contains low percentage (5%) of
tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and higher
percentage (46%) of dicalcium silicate (C2S).
• (vi) Pozzolana Cement:
• In this cement pozzolana material is 10 to 30
per cent.
• It can resist action of sulphate.
• It releases less heat during setting.
• It is used for mass concrete works.
• It is also used in sewage line works.
• (vii) Expanding Cement:
• This cement expands as it sets.
• This property is achieved by adding expanding medium like
sulpho aluminate and a stabilizing agent to ordinary cement.
• This is used for filling the cracks in concrete structures.
(viii) High Alumina Cement:
• It is manufactured by calcining a mixture of lime and
bauxite.
• It is more resistant to sulphate and acid attack. It develops
almost full strength within 24 hours of adding water.
• It is used for under water works.
• Following are the sources of sulphates which are
responsible for sulphate attack:
• 1. Internal Sources
• This is more rare but, originates from such concrete-
making materials as cements, fly ash aggregate,
and admixtures. Portland cement might be over-
sulphated.
• presence of natural gypsum in the aggregates.
• Admixtures also can contain small amounts of
sulphates.
• External Sources
• External sources of sulphate are more common and
usually are a result of high-sulphate soils and ground
waters, or can be the result of atmospheric or industrial
water pollution.
• Soil may contain excessive amounts of gypsum or other
sulphate.
• Ground water be transported to the concrete foundations,
retaining walls, and other underground structures.
• Industrial waste waters.
• (ix) Blast Furnace Cement:
• In the manufacture of iron, slag comes out as a waste
product.
• By grinding clinkers of cement with about 60 to 65 per
cent of slag, this cement is produced.
• The properties of this cement are more or less same as
ordinary cement, but it is cheap, since it utilise waste
product.
• This cement is durable but it gains the strength slowly
and hence needs longer period of curing
• (x) Acid Resistant Cement:
• This cement is produced by adding acid resistant aggregated
such as quartz, quartzite, sodium silicate or soluble glass.
• This cement has good resistance to action of acid and water.
• It is commonly used in the construction of chemical factories.
• (xi) Sulphate Resistant Cement:
• By keeping the percentage of tricalcium aluminate C3A below
five per cent in ordinary cement this cement is produced.
• It is used in the construction of structures which are likely to
be damaged by alkaline conditions.
• Examples of such structures are canals, culverts etc.
• Alkali content is defined as the content of sodium oxide
(Na2O) and potassium oxide (K2O) in cement.
• The alkalis in concrete are mainly supplied by
the cement and, in some cases, by
admixtures, aggregates, or the external
environment. Alkali–silica reaction produces a
gel that imbibes water.
 (xii) Fly Ash Blended Cement:

• Fly ash is a byproduct in thermal stations. The particles of fly ash are very
minute and they fly in the air, creating air pollution problems.
• Thermal power stations have to spend lot of money to arrest fly ash and
dispose safely.
• It is found that one of the best way to dispose fly ash is to mix it with cement
in controlled condition and derive some of the beneficiary effects on cement.
• Now-a-days cement factories produce the fly ash in their own thermal
stations or borrow it from other thermal stations and further process it to
make it suitable to blend with cement. 20 to 30% fly ash is used for blending.
• Fly ash blended cements have superior quality of resistance to weathering
action. The ultimate strength gained is the same as that with ordinary
portland cement.
• However strength gained in the initial stage is slow. Birla plus, Birla star, are
some of the brand name of blended cement.
 Uses of Cement
• Cement is used widely for the construction of various structures.
Some of them are listed below:
• (i) Cement slurry is used for filling cracks in concrete structures.
• (ii) Cement mortar is used for masonry work, plastering.
• (iii) Cement concrete is used for the construction of various
structures like buildings, bridges, water tanks, tunnels etc.
• (iv) Cement is used to manufacture lamp posts, telephone posts,
railway sleepers etc.
• (v) For manufacturing cement pipes, garden seats, dust bins,
flower pots etc. cement is commonly used.
• (vi) It is useful for the construction of roads, footpaths, courts
for various sports etc
 SAND
• Sand is a natural product which is obtained as river sand.
• However sea sand should not be used for the following
reasons:
• 1. It contains salt and hence structure will remain damp.
The mortar is affected by efflorenscence and blisters
appear.
• 2. It contains organic matter, which decompose after
some time, reducing the life of the mortar.
• Sand may be obtained artificially by crushing hard stones.
Usually artificial sand is obtained as a by-product while
crushing stones to get coarse aggregate.
Sand is used in mortar and concrete for the following purpose:

• 1. It sub-divides the paste of binding material

into thin films and allows it to adhere and
spread.
• 2. It fills up the gap between the building
blocks and spreads the binding material.
• 3. It adds to the density of the mortar.
• 4. It prevents the shrinkage of the cementing
material.
• 5. The cost of cementing material per unit
volume is reduced as this low cost material
increases the volume of mortar.
• 6. Silica of sand contributes to formation of
silicates resulting into the hardened mass.
 The properties of good sand are:

• 1. It should be chemically inert.

• 2. It should be free from organic or vegetable
matter.
• 3. It should be free from salt.
• 4. It should contain sharp, angular and coarse
grains.
• 5. It should be well graded.
• 6. It should be hard.
 CEMENT MORTAR
• For preparing mortar, first a mixture of cement
and sand is made thoroughly mixing them in
dry condition.
• Water is gradually added and mixed with
shovels.

shovel
• Curing: Cement gains the strength gradually with
hydration. Hence it is necessary to see that mortar is
wet till hydration has taken place.
• The process to ensure sufficient moisture for
hydration after laying mortar/concrete is called curing.
• Curing is ensured by spraying water. Curing normally
starts 6–24 hours after mortar is used.
• It may be noted that in the initial period water
requirement is more for hydration and gradually it
reduces.
• Curing is recommended for 28 days.
 Properties of Cement Mortar:

The following are the important properties of cement mortar:

1. When water is added to the dry mixture of cement and
sand, hydration of cement starts and it binds sand particles
and also the surrounding surfaces of concrete.
2. A mix richer than 1:3 is prone to shrinkage.
3. Well proportioned mortar provides impervious surface.
4. Leaner mix is not capable of closing the voids in sand and
hence the plastered surface is porous.
5. The strength of mortar depends upon the proportion of
cement and sand.
 Uses of Cement Mortar
Mortar is used :
1. to bind masonry units like stone, bricks, cement
blocks.
2. to plaster slab and walls make them impervious.
3. to give neat finishing to walls and concrete
works.
4. to fill joints and cracks in walls.
5. as a filler material in stone masonary
 Plain concrete
• Plain concrete, commonly known as concrete, is an
intimate mixture of binding material, fine aggregate,
coarse aggregate and water.
• This can be easily moulded to desired shape and size
before it looses plasticity and hardens.
• Plain concrete is strong in compression but very
weak in tension.
• The tensile property is introduced in concrete by
inducting different materials and this attempt has
given rise to RCC, PSC.
 PLAIN CONCRETE
Major ingredients of concrete are:
1. Binding material (like cement)
2. Fine aggregate (sand)
3. Coarse aggregates (crushed stone)
4. Water
 Functions of Various Ingredients
• Cement is the binding material. After addition of water
it hydrates and binds aggregates and the surrounding
surfaces like stone and bricks.
• Generally richer mix (with more cement) gives more
strength.
• Setting time starts after 30 minutes and ends after 6
hours.
• Hence concrete should be laid in its mould before 30
minutes of mixing of water and should not be subjected
to any external forces till final setting takes place.
• Coarse aggregate consists of crushed stones. It
should be well graded.
• They should be clean, sharp, angular and hard.
They give mass to the concrete and prevent
shrinkage of cement.
• Fine aggregate consists of river sand.
• It prevents shrinkage of cement.
• When surrounded by cement it gains mobility
enters the voids in coarse aggregates and binding
of ingredients takes place.
• It adds density to concrete, since it fills the voids.
• Denser the concrete higher is its strength. Water used for
making concrete should be clean.
• It activates the hydration of cement and forms plastic mass.
• As it sets completely concrete becomes hard mass. Water gives
workability to concrete which means water makes it possible
to mix the concrete with ease and place it in final position.
• More the water better is the workability.
• However excess water reduces the strength of concrete. Figure
shows the variation of strength of concrete with water cement
ratio.
• To achieve required workability and at the same time good
strength a water cement ratio of 0.4 to 0.45 is used, in case of
machine mixing and water cement ratio of 0.5 to 0.6 is used
for hand mixing.
• Desirable Properties of Concrete Appropriate
quality and quantity of cement, fine aggregate,
coarse aggregate and water should be used so
that the green concrete has the following
properties:
• (a) Desired workability
• (b) No segregation in transporting and placing
• (c) No bleeding and
• (d) No harshness
• Hardened concrete should have
• (a) required characteristic strength
• (b) minimum dimensional changes
• (c) good durability
• (d) impermeable
• (e) good resistance to wear and tear.
 Uses of Concrete :
1. As bed concrete below column footings,
wall footings.
For pavements ,
,For making building blocks
• However major use of concrete is as a major
ingredient of reinforced and prestressed concrete.
• Many structural elements like footings, columns,
beams, lintels, roofs are made with R.C.C. Cement
concrete is used for making storage structures like
water tanks, silos etc.
• Bridges, dams, retaining walls are R.C.C. structures
in which concrete is the major ingredient.
 REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (R.C.C.)
• Concrete is good in resisting compression but is very weak in
resisting tension.
• Hence reinforcement is provided in the concrete wherever
tensile stress is expected.
• The best reinforcement is steel, since tensile strength of steel
is quite high and the bond between steel and concrete is
good.
• As the elastic modulus of steel is high, for the same extension
the force resisted by steel is high compared to concrete.
• Reinforcements are usually in the form of mild steel or ribbed
steel bars of 6 mm to 32 mm diameter.
• A cage of reinforcements is prepared as per
the design requirements, kept in a form work
and then concrete is poured.
• After the concrete hardens, the form work is
removed.
• The composite material of steel and concrete
now called R.C.C. acts as a structural member
and can resist tensile as well as compressive
stresses very well.
• Steel reinforcing bars are used to enhance the
tensile strength of concrete though concrete is
weak in tension, and its because both have
the same coefficient of thermal expansion.
Also, structural steel is used as such to
construct steel buildings, which is more easier
in erection and is having less strength to
weight ratio compared to concrete. Also steel
have 100% scrap value.
 Properties of R.C.C./Requirement of Good
R.C.C.
• 1. It should be capable of resisting expected tensile,
compressive, bending and shear forces.
• 2. It should not show excessive deflection and spoil
serviceability requirement.
• 3. There should be proper cover to the reinforcement,
so that the corrossion is prevented.
• 4. The hair cracks developed should be within the
permissible limit.
• 5. It is a good fire resistant material.
• 6. When it is fresh, it can be moulded to any desired
shape and size
• 7. Durability is very good.
• 8. R.C.C. structure can be designed to take any load.
• Uses of R.C.C.
• It is a widely used building material. Some of its important uses are
listed below:
• 1. R.C.C. is used as a structural element, the common structural
elements in a building where R.C.C. is used are:
• (a) Footings
• (b) Columns
• (c) Beams and lintels
• (d) Chejjas, roofs and slabs.
• (e) Stairs
2. R.C.C. is used for the construction of storage
structures like Water tanks ,Dams ,Silos.
3. It is used for the construction of big structures like
(a) Bridges
(b) Retaining walls
(c) Docks and harbors
(d) Under water structures.
4. It is used for pre-casting
(a) Railway sleepers
(b) Electric poles
5. R.C.C. is used for constructing tall structures like
(a) Multistory buildings
(b) Chimneys (c) Towers.
6. It is used for paving
(a) Roads
(b) Airports.
7. R.C.C. is used in building atomic plants to prevent danger of radiation.
For this purpose R.C.C. walls built are 1.5 m to 2.0 m thick
Lintel
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE (PSC)
• Strength of concrete in tension is very low and
hence it is ignored in R.C.C. design.
• Concrete in tension is acting as a cover to steel
and helping to keep steel at desired distance.
Thus in R.C.C. lot of concert is not properly
utilized.
• Prestressing the concrete is one of the
method of utilizing entire concrete.
• The principle of prestressed concrete is to introduce
calculated compressive stresses in the zones wherever tensile
stresses are expected in the concrete structural elements.
• When such structural element is used stresses developed due
to loading has to first nullify these compressive stresses
before introducing tensile stress in concrete.
• Thus in prestressed concrete entire concrete is utilized to
resist the load. Another important advantage of PSC is hair
cracks are avoided in the concrete and hence durability is
high.
• The fatigue strength of PSC is also more. The deflections of
PSC beam is much less and hence can be used for longer
spans also
• PSC is commonly used in the construction of bridges,
large column free slabs and roofs. PSC sleepers and
electric piles are commonly used.
• The material used in PSC is high tensile steel and high
strength steel.
• The tensioning of wires may be by pretensioning or by
post tensioning. Pretensioning consists in stretching the
wires before concreting and then releasing the wires.
• In case of post tensioning, the ducts are made in
concrete elements. After concrete of hardens,
prestressing wires are passed through ducts.
• After stretching wires, they are anchored to concrete
elements by special anchors.
 FIBRE-REINFORCED CONCRETE (FRC)
• Plain concrete possesses deficiencies like low tensile strength,
limited ductility and low resistance to cracking. The cracks develop
even before loading.
• After loading micro cracks widen and propagate, exposing concrete
to atmospheric actions. If closely spaced and uniformly dispered
fibres are provided while mixing concrete, cracks are arrested and
static and dynamic properties are improved.
• Fibre reinforced concrete can be defined as a composite material of
concrete or mortar with discontinuous and uniformly distributed
fibres. Commonly used fibres are of steel, nylon, asbestos, coir,
glass, carbon and polypropylene.
• The length to lateral dimension of fibres range from 30 to 150. The
diameter of fibres vary from 0.25 to 0.75 mm.
• Fibre reinforced concrete is having better tensile strength,
ductility and resistance to cracking. Uses of FRC
• 1. For wearing coat of air fields, roads and refractory linings.
• 2. For manufacturing precast products like pipes, stairs, wall
panels, manhole covers and boats.
• 3. Glass fibre reinforced concrete is used for manufacturing
doors and window frames, park benches, bus shelters etc.
• 4. Carbon FRC is suitable for structures like cladding and
shells.
• 5. Asbestos FRC sheets are commonly used as roofing
materials.
 FERRO-CEMENT
• The term ferro-cement implies the combination of ferrous
product with cement.
• Generally this combination is in the form of steel wires meshes
embedded in a portland cement mortar.
• Wire mesh is usually of 0.8 to 1.00 m diameter steel wires at 5
mm to 50 mm spacing and the cement mortar is of cement sand
ratio of 1:2 or 1:3. 6 mm diameter bars are also used at large
spacing, preferably in the corners.
• Sand may be replaced by baby jelly. The water cement ratio
used is between 0.4 to 0.45.
• Ferro-cement reinforcement is assembled into its final desired
shape and plastered directly.
• There is no need for form work. Minimum two
layers of reinforcing steel meshes are required.
• According to American Concrete Institute
“Ferro cement is a thin walled reinforced
concrete construction where usually a hydraulic
cement is reinforced with layers of continuous
and relatively small diameter mesh.
• The mesh used may be metallic or any other
suitable material.”
• Ferro-cement is fast emerging as an alternate material for
timber.
• The history of ferro-cement goes back to 1843 (even before
RCC). Joseph Louis Lambet constructed several rowing boats,
plant plots and garden seats using ferro-cement.
• In early 1940’s noted Italian engineer and architect Pier Luigi
Nervi carried out scientific tests on ferro-cement and used it to
replace wood wherever possible.
• He built small tonnage vessels, the largest being 165 tons
motor sailor. Nervi also pioneered the architectural use of
ferro-cement in buildings.
• Ferro-cement can be given the finish of teak wood, rose wood
etc. and even for making tables, chairs and benches it can be
used.
 Properties of Ferro-cement
• 1. Its strength per unit mass is high.
• 2. It has the capacity to resist shock load.
• 3. It can be given attractive finish like that of
teak and rose wood.
• 4. Ferro cement elements can be constructed
without using form work.
• 5. It is impervious.
 Uses of Ferro-cement
• It can be used for making:
• 1. Partition walls
• 2. Window frames, chejjas and drops
• 3. Shelf of cupboards
• 4. Door and window shutters
• 5. Domestic water tanks
• 6. Precast roof elements
• 7. Reapers and raffers required for supporting roof tiles.
• 8. Pipes
• 9. Silos
• 10. Furnitures
• 11. Manhole covers
• 12. Boats.
 BITUMEN
• Ashalt, bitumen and tar are referred as bituminous
materials, which are essentially hydrocarbon materials.
• The asphalt is a mixture of inert mineral matter lime
alumina, lime, silica etc.
• and a hydrocarbon known as asphaltic bitumen.
• In some places like Trinidad and Bermudez, asphalt is
available in nature at a depth of 3 to 60 metres.
• It is known as natural asphalt.
• Common variety used all over the world is residual asphalt,
which is obtained by fractional distillation of crude
petroleum oil.
• Bitumen is the binding material which is present in
asphalt. It is a hydrocarbon.
• It is obtained by partial distillation of crude oil.
• It contains 87 per cent carbon, 11 per cent hydrogen
and 2 per cent oxygen.
• Tar is obtained in the distructive distillation of coal,
wood or other organic materials.
• When coal or wood is heated to redness in an closed
chamber, it yields volatile product and residue coke.
• After separating and cooling volatile product gives tar.
 DISTEMPERS

• Distempers are the cheaper variety of paints in which chalk is used

as base and water is used as a carrier.
• The emulsifying agent which is commonly used is glue or casein.
• Distempers are available in powder form or in the form of paste.
• They are to be mixed with hot water before use. The surface to be
distempered should be thoroughly rubbed and cleaned.
• The cracks, if any should be filled by lime putty. The surface should
be kept dry for about two months before applying distemper.
• Thus a primary coat is applied and is allowed to dry. Distemper is
usually applied in two coats.
• Properties of Distemper
• 1. They are generally light in color.
• 2. The coatings are generally thick.
• 3. They give reflective coating.
• 4. They are less durable than oil paints but are
cheaper
• VARNISHES
• Varnish is the solution of resins or resinous
substances like amber, copal, shellac, gum
resin etc. in solvents like oil, turpentile,
alcohol etc.
• Depending upon the solvents used varnishes
are classified as,
• oil varnishes, turpentile varnishes, spirit
varnishes and water varnishes.
• The desirable characteristics of an ideal varnish
are
• 1. It should give glossy surface.
• 2. Should be durable.
• 3. It should dry rapidly after application.
• 4. It should not develop cracks after drying. It is
commonly used on wooden surfaces.
GLASS
 ,
Glass
amorphous, hard, brittle, transparent, or
translucent, super cooled liquid of infinite
viscosity, obtained by fusing a mixture of
metallic silicates, most commonly of Na,K, Ca.
and Pb
It has no sharp melting point and definite
structural formula
General formula: [Link].6SiO2
Where X:Na,K and Y:Ca. and Pb
 Classification of Glass
• Soda lime glass
• Potash lime glass
• Potash lead glass
Soda lime glass
◦ Na2O,CaO,6SiO2
Known as soft glass an mixture of sodium silicate or
calcium silicate.
Properties
◦ Available in cheap and clear state
◦ Fusible at comparatively low temperature
◦ Possible to blow or weld articles made from glass tubes
with the help of simple apparatus
Uses: glass tubes, Plate glass, Window glass
Potash-lime glass:
 k2O,CaO,6SiO2

known as bohemian-glass or hard glass.

mixture of potassium silicate and calcium
silicate.
Properties:
◦ (i)it fuses at high temperature.
◦ (ii)it is not easily affected by water and other
solvents.
◦ (iii)it does not melt so easily.
Uses: manufacture of glass articles to with
stand high temperatures as combustion tubes.
Potash-lead glass:
 k2O,PbO,6SiO2

known as flint glass.

mixture of potassium silicate and lead silicate.
Properties:
(i) Fuses very easily.
 (ii) Easily attacked by aqueous solution.
(iii) Posses great refractive power.
(iv) Specific gravity is about 3 to 3.50.
(v) Turns black and opaque.
Uses: manufacture of artificial gems, electric bulbs,
lenses, prisms etc
• Common Glass
• known as bottle glass.
• Mixture of sodium silicate, calcium silicate
and iron silicate.
• Properties:
– (i) Fuses with difficulty.
– (ii) It is brown, grey or yellow in colour.
– (iii) easily attacked by acids.
• Uses: medicine bottles.
 Manufacture of Glass
• Collection of raw materials
• Preparation of batch
• Melting in Furnace
• Fabrication
• Annealing
 Collection of raw materials
Based on type
Soda-lime-chalk-soda-sand
Potash –lime-chalk-K2CO3
Potash-lead-glass-Litharge (PbO)Lead sesquioxide (Pb3O4), Potassium
Carbonate and sand
Cullet :
◦ Pieces of broken gas
◦ Increases feasibility and prevent loss of alkali during volitization
◦ Reduce cost
◦ Declourises
Raw materials contain ferrous and ferric oxide
◦ Ferrous –green tint
◦ Ferric-yellow tint
◦ (antimony oxide (Sb2O3)
◦ Arsenic oxide (AS2O3)
◦ Cobalt Oxide (COO)
◦ Nickel oxide (NIO)
 Batching
• Raw materials, cullet,
decolouriser powdered in
grinding machine
• Remember to weigh
accurately
• Mixing is done in mixing
machine till uniform
mixture is obtained
• Mixture thus obtained is
called flint or a batch.
• Now batch is taken to
furnace
 Melting in furnace
Done either in pot furnace or tank
furnace and heating is continued till
release of CO2,O2,SiO2 stops.
Pot furnace
Made of fire clay-resembles crucible
steel process
Pots are placed in holes of furnace
Charging and collecting doors are kept
projecting out for convenient addition
of raw materials ad withdrawal of
molten glass.
Pots are filled with raw material
melted down and removed from the
pot
Intermittent process and used to melt
small quantities of glass at a time and
used for special types of glass
 Tank Furnace
Continuous Process-Large Scale Production
Constructed of reinforced masonry and given special shape
to deflect flames of heated glass
Ports for entry of preheated producer gas
Doors are provided for charging and for taking out molten
glass
Bridge separates tank into large and smaller compartments.
Impure glass in large flow through bridge reaches to small
and this gall is collected
Interior surface of the tank is provided with refractory lining
.
Tank is filled with raw materials, furnace is heated by
allowing producer gas through ports. The charging of raw
materials and taking out of molten mass are simultaneous
Continuous process and is adopted to melt large quantities
of glass at a time
 fabrication
• Blowing
• Casting
• Drawing
• Pressing
• Rolling
• Spinning
Blowing
Blow pipe of 12mm dia and 1.8m length
is used
One end is dipped in molten mass and a
lump of 50 N is weighed
Lengthened to some extent by its own
weight
From other end operator blows regularly
from other end of bow pipe by means of
air compressor
Blowing and heating is continued till a
cylinder is formed,
Placed on a iron plate and disconnected
finally when placed vertically a thin plate
of glass is forced by gravity
 casting
• Molten glass is poured in to moulds and
are allowed to cool down slowly
• Adopted for mirror
• Large pieces of simple design are
prepared
 drawing
• Pulling of molten glass either by hand or
mechanical equipment
• Iron bar is dipped sideways and lifted horizontally
thus catches up a sheet of molten glass
• Allowed to pass a large rotating roller
• Roller helps the molten glass to spread in the form
of thin sheet
 pressing
• Pressing in to mould either
by hand or mechanical
process
• Adopted for ornaments

Rolling
 Molten glass is passed through
heay iron rollers and flat glass of
uniform thickness is obtained.
 Poured on a flat iron casting
table with the aid of heavy iron
roller
 spinning
Used in providing insulation
against heat and sound
Molten glass is spun at high
speed to form very fine
glass fibres
Doesn't fade, decay,
shrank , not attacked by
acids and vermin's
Soft and flexible
Hugh tensile strength that
of mild steel
 Annealing
• Glass, being insulator cannot be cooled rapidly
because if it is cooled rapidly the superficial
layer cools down and the inner layer remains
in expanded state which may cause breakage
of glass.
• Due to this reason glass is passed through
different zones of decreasing temperature and
this process is known as annealing
 Uses of Glass
• Sheet glass
• Used in small panels of doors, windows.
• Should be clear , free from blisters,
scratches, waves, bubble etc.
• Available in thickness of 2,2.5,3,4,5.5,6mm
• Sheet glass AA used as mirrors
• A used as safety glass
• B for glazing in buildings
• C quality for frosted glass
 Plate glass
• Stronger and more transparent
• Used for large panels such as shop windows,
manufacture of mirrors etc.
• Thickness-3 to 32mm
• Available in rough cast, rolled and polished.
• Plate glass denotes the polished variety
 Float Glass
• Has excellent optical clarity and aesthetic
appearance
• Used in modern size shop windows and
façade of tall buildings.
• Wired Glass
• Wire setting is embedded in plate glass
during rolling
• Used for sky lights were fire resistance is
required
 Translucent glass

• A image or pattern is printed so that

image is not seen
• Used for bedrooms.
• Lavatories, bathrooms
• Resists dust collection and easy drainage
of rain water
• One side is textured while other side is
flat
 weight
• Glass used for panels should not be less than
7.5 kg/m2
• Weight of sheet glass
Normal Thickness Range of thickness Weight (kg/m2)
3.0 2.8-3.2 7.5
4.0 3.8-4.2 10.0
4.8 4.6-5.1 11.9
5.5 5.2-5.8 13.5
6.3 6.0-6.6 15.5
Paints
 Types of paints
 Composition of paints
 Considerations in choosing
paints
 Paints commonly used in
buildings
Paints are liquid components of pigments
and binders which when applied to the
surface in thin coats, dry to form a solid
film to impart the surface a decorative
finish, apart from giving protection to the
base material(i.e., concrete, masonry &
plaster surface) from weathering,
corrosion & other chemical and
biological attacks.
 objects of paintings
(1) It protects the surface from weathering effects
of the atmosphere and actions by other liquids,
fumes and gases.
(2) It prevents decay of wood an corrosion in metal.
(3) It is used to give good appearance to the surface.
The decorative effects may be created by painting
and the surface becomes hygienically good, clean,
colorful and attractive.
(4) It provides a smooth surface for easy cleaning.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL
• form hard and durable surface
• give attractive appearance
• cheap & readily available
• can be applied easily to the surfaces
• have good spreading quality, cover maximum area in minimum quantity
• dry in reasonable time
• should not show hair cracks on drying
• form film of uniform colour, on drying
• be stable for a longer period
• • It should not be affected by atmospheric agencies
 CONSTITUENTS OF A PAINT
• BASE
A base is a solid substance in a form of fine powder,
forming the bulk of a paint. It is generally a metallic oxide.
• A base in a paint provides opaque coating to hide the
surface to be painted.
• Commonly used Bases are White Lead, Red Lead,
Oxides of Iron and Zinc.
• BINDER – These are liquid substances which hold the
different in gradients of a paint in liquid suspension. It
makes the paint to spread evenly on the surface.
Commonly used Binders are Tug oil, Linseed oil, poppy oil.
• DRIER – Driers are used to accelerate the
process of drying and hardening by extracting
oxygen from atmosphere and transferring it to
the Binder.
• However driers reduces elasticity of the paint
and hence should not be used in the final
coat. Litharge is the most commonly used
Drier.
• COLOURING PIGMENT - Colouring pigments are added to the
base to have different desired colours.
• Pigments can be divided into the following divisions
Natural colours - Orches, Umbers and iron oxides.
Calcined colours - Lamp Black, Indian Red, Carbon Black
Precipitates – Prussian Blue, Chrome green and yellow
Lakes – Prepared by discolouring barytes or china clay with
the help of suitable dyes.
• 5. SOLVENTS – Solvents are added to paint to make it thin so
that it can be easily applied on surfaces. It also helps the
paint in penetrating through the porous surface of the
background. Commonly used solvents are Water, Alcohol,
Naphtha, Benzene.
 Composition of paints

Pigment Constituents Comments

Lead white Basic lead carbonate Highly poisonous
Yellow ochre Hydrated ferric oxide Highly tolerant externally
Cadmium yellow Cadmium sulphide Highly poisonous
Red ochre Ferric oxide An earth pigment
Chrome red Basic lead chromate Highly poisonous
Prussian blue Ferric ferrocyande Poisonous
Cobalt blue Cobalt aluminate Poisonous
Zinc green Zinc chromate Highly poisonous
Amber Clay without iron and From ferric oxide
magnesium
Burnt sienna Hydrated ferric oxide An earth pigment Lamp
black Carbon
 Types of paints
• CLASSIFICATION BASED ON BINDERS
 Oil Paints
 Paints based on non-oil resins
 Cellulose paints
 Water based Paints
 Miscellaneous paints
• CLASSIFICATION BASED ON ULTIMATE USE:
 General purpose paints, including primers,
under-coat paint and finishing coat paints.
 Acid and alkali resistant paints
 Fire resistant paints
 Fungicidial paints
 Miscellaneous paints
MIXED CLASSIFICATION : TYPES OF PAINTS
• Aluminum paints • Enamel Paints
• Anti corrosive paints • Cement based paints
• Asbestos paints • Emulsion paints
• Bronze paints • Oil paints
• Cellulose Paints • Plastic paints
• Colloidal Pints • Synthetic paints
• Silicate paints
 CONSIDERATIONS IN CHOOSING PAINT
1. Nature of the surface to be painted:
Paint should match the surface. Different types are used for
different surfaces. Ex: Plastering, wood, metal
2. Moisture in the material to be painted:
For new walls paint chosen should have capacity to breathe
i.e to allow moisture to pass through it. Oil paint should not
be used as there will be bubbling and peeling of the wall.
hence oil paints not used in damp moist conditions.
3. Alkalinity of the Surface:
paint used on lime plastered surfaces should be resistant to
alkalis, not react with lime. If not the paint will peel off. If
necessary surface should be treated with suitable alkali
removing primer before painting with some type of paints
4. Relative humidity of atmosphere at the time of painting:
many paints does not stick under high humidity. Drying is also
slow. Cement paint works well in high humidity. Oil paint
work should be avoided in wet season.
5. Purpose of using the paint
Serve the purpose for which it is meant. High decorating-
decorative, protection of exterior wall of tall building-exterior
paints that are antifungal and last for long time are used
6. Cost of the paint:
paint should be affordable, vary from low cost to high cost.
For low cost buildings white washing may be sufficient.
7. The colour of the paint:
Stable for the environment. Bright colour fade faster. Very
bright colours not to be used for exterior.
 TYPES OF PAINTS
• ALUMINIUM PAINTS
– consist of aluminum powder as base suspended in
either quick-drying spirit varnish or slow drying
varnish as per requirement
– visible even in darkness.
– Resists heat to a certain degree
– High covering capacity 1l cover 200 M2
– Gives good appearance to the surface
– Impervious to the moisture
– Possess high electrical resistance
– Aluminum paints are used for painting metal roofs,
silos, machinery, poles, towers and storage tanks
• ANTICORROSIVE PAINTS:
– Linseed oil is used as vehicle A pigment of CrO2; Pb or red
lead or Zinc chrome is taken and after mixing it with some
quantity of very fine sand, it is added to the paint.
– These paint are cheap and lasts for a long duration.
– Appearance of the paint is black
• ASBESTOS PAINT:
– Peculiar type of paint applied on surfaces exposed to acidic
gases and steam
– The main constituent is fibrous asbestos.
• BITUMINOUS PAINT:
– prepared by dissolving asphalt or mineral
pitches or vegetable bitumen any type of oil
or petroleum or naphtha.
– presents a black appearance , used for
painting iron work under water.
– 1. mineral pitch - a dark bituminous
substance found in natural beds and as
residue from petroleum distillation
 Colloidal Paint:
– No inert material is mixed
– Requires more time to settle
– Penetrates through the surface
– Used for interior as well as exterior walls.
• CELLUSLOSE PAINTS
– Prepared from nitro-cotton, celluloid sheets,
photographic films etc.
– Ordinary paint hardens by oxidation
– hardens by evaporation of thinning agent.
– costlier, presents flexible , hard smooth surface.
– Surface painted can be washed and easily
cleaned
– Not affected by hot water and can sustain
extreme degrees of cold and heat
 CEMENT PAINT
– a mixture of white cement,pigment,
accelerator and other additives.
– available in dry powder form.
– waterproof , durable, strong.
– For external finish, on cement-plastered walls,
mixed with water before its application.
– used on exterior surfaces of buildings, over
corrugated iron sheets, then paint is mixed
with boiled linseed oil before use.
 Advantages
– Less skill and time for applying
– Preparation of surfaces is easier and not necessary to
remove the previous coats
– Suitable for painting fresh plasters and have high
alkalinity.
– Not affected by alkalinity of masonry surfaces
– Can be applied over new and damp walls since these
cant be painted with oil paints
– Economical compared to oil paints
– Dry more rapidly than oil paints
– hides out various surface irregularities, hair lining,
roughness etc. giving smooth and pleasing appearance
to all cemented masonry surfaces where it is applied.
• Emulsion Paint:
 available in many varieties.
 Contains building material such as poly vinyl acetate,
synthetic resins etc.
 Easy to apply, dries quickly in 1.5 to 2.5 hours.
 Colour of paint is retained for a longer time.
 Absence of odour and excellent alkali resistance.
 Application carried out by brush or spray gun.
 For rough surfaces thin coat of cement pant is applied to
smoothen the surface as it is necessary to have sound
surface to receive the emulsion paint.
 Enamel Paint
 available in different colours
 Contains white lead or zinc white, oil, petroleum spirit
and resinous matter.
 Dries slowly and forms hard and durable surface.
 Surface painted by this not affected by alkalis, acids,
fumes of gas, hot and cold water, stem etc.
 Used for both internal and external walls.
 To improve the appearance, it is desirable to apply a
coat of titanium white in pale linseed oil before the
coat of enamel paint.
 Graphite paint
• Presents a black color
• Applied on iron sheets that come in contact with ammonia,
chlorine, sulphur gases
• Used in mines and underground railways
Inodorous paint
• Turpentine is not used
• White lead or zinc white is mixed with methaylated spirit.
• White lead or zinc white is well ground in oil
• Shellac with some quantity of linseed oil and castor oil is
dissolved in methaylated spirit.
• Paint is not durable but dries quickly
• methaylated spirit evaporates and a film of shellac remains on
the surface
 Luminous Paint

• Consists calcium sulphide with varnish

• Applied surface of this paint shines like radium dials of watches
after the source of light is cut off
• Applied on surfaces free from corrosion or any other lead paint.

Oil paint
• This is Ordinary paint applied in three coats of varying
composition
• Primes, undercoat, finishing coat
• Cheap, easy to apply
• Possess good capacity and low gloss
• Not applied in humid and damp weather
• Dampness affects the life of oil paint
• For redecoration of old paint surface a fresh oil paint is used and
 Plastic Paint
• Contains necessary variety of plastics
• Available in market under different trade names
• Done by brush painting or spray painting
• Possesses pleasing appearance and is attractive in colour
• Widely use for show rooms, auditoriums
• Introduced in 1955
• Composed of plastic compounds such as vinyl acetate and acrylate which are
held in water.
• When paint dries water evaporates film of binders, pigments and other solids
is left behind
• Covers 15m2 of wall surface for one litre
• Interior two coats are sufficient, each coat having a thickness of 0.04mm
 Guidelines for use of plastic emulsion

• Application:
• widely used for interior jobs and cannot resist attack pf salts, dust and
gases carried by air, sunlight, fog, rains, rise and fall of temperature, etc
• Base Surface:
• success of paint depend on quality of plaster and characteristics of base
surface
• Surface painted should be cleaned of all dust particles and rubbed with
sand paper
• If necessary levelling putty is applied.
• Brushes:
• Should be done with clean brushes or sponge rollers
• Paints possess good flow properties
• Brush marks are automatically levelled off hence beautiful, uniform and
washable in short time.
• Colour of paints
• Dark colour plastic emulsion paints are required manufacturer
advise is must to be followed
• For light colour , white emulsion with certain colours known as
tinters are added during manufacture
• Diluting the paint
• Supplied with thick consistency
• Need to be diluted according to manufacturer recommendations
• In general half litre extra water is required for first coat
• Quarter litre extra oil is required for the second coat
• Metallic Surfaces
• Not suitable for metallic as they are water based and neither
antifungal nor water repellent
• Moisture resistance:
• Allows moisture through minute pores, but fresh surface need to be
dried for a period of 4 months to one year for the moisture to
escape
• Thickness of the coat:
• Neither thin nor thick
• Must possess elasticity to match stress in plaster and not separate
from surface
• Made durable by application of successive coats and not in one coat
at a time
• Nature of the surface:
• need not require rough surface sticks better to smooth surface also
• Initial roughening before the first coat is required to be free from
dirt and dust.
• Good emulsion should not colour a moist cloth when rubbed on
paint surface
• Washing:
• Desirable to wash the painted surface with damp cloth. If not dust
particles would adhere to the surface making the paint lost its
appearance.
 Silicate paint
• Prepared by mixing calcined and finely grounded silica with
resinous substances
• When dried forms extremely hard surface
• Durable, with stands extreme heat, adheres firmly to brick work,
not affected by alkalis, doesn’t react with metals
• Drier used must be special silicate drier type
• Cab ne applied directly on brick, plaster or concrete surfaces.
• Surfaces need to be wet before application
• 2 to 3 coats are necessary
• Prime coat is not required before app[lying
• Tool used to paint silica paint should be cleaned quickly
• Surfaces should not be painted in hot weather.
 Synthetic rubber paint
• Prepared from resins
• Offer good resistance to water and not affected by heavy rains
• Dies quickly
• Uniform colour maintained when applied
• Little affected by weather and sunlight
• Can be applied on surfaces may not be completely dry
• Moderate in cost covers a sizeable area
• Easy to apply on the surface
• Possess excellent chemical resisting property