Introduction to the Human Body

Gerald S. Bernal, RMT, MD, FPCP, MSc, FPSD

Copyright © 2020 Gerald S. Bernal, MD

 Learning Objectives
• Define anatomy and physiology
• Explain how anatomy and physiology are related
• Name the 6 levels of structural organization that make
up the human body & explain how they are related
• Name the organ systems of the body and state the
major functions of each system
• List the eight functions that humans must perform to
maintain life
• List the 5 survival needs of the human body
• Define homeostasis & explain its importance
• Define negative feedback & describe its role in
maintaining homeostasis and normal body function
 Learning Tasks

At the end of the session the student must be able to:

• Explain how anatomy and physiology are related
• Explain how the 6 levels of structural organization of
the human body are related
• Explain why humans need to perform the eight basic
functions to maintain life
• Explain how homeostasis play an important role in
protecting and preserving normal body functions
Anatomy
● Describes the structures of the body:
● what they are made of
● where they are located
● associated structures

Physiology
● study the functions of anatomical structures, both
as individual and cooperative
● Considers the operation of specific organ
systems – how the organ works often at the
cellular or molecular level
KEY CONCEPT
● Structure (anatomy) and function (physiology)
are intimately related since all physiological
functions are performed by specific anatomical
structures

● Principle of complementarity states that

structure and function are complementary
● Function always reflects structure
● What a structure can do depends on its specific form

*Complementary- use of two things when each adds something

to the other or helps make the other better
● Key to learning anatomy is understanding
function
● For example:
Left side of heart is larger than right.
● Why is that?
 Branches / Divisions

ANATOMY

GROSS MICROSCOPIC

Surface Regional Systemic Cytology Histology

Superficial Specific body Organ Tissues

Cells
markings areas (i.e. head) systems
(11)
6 Levels of Structural Organization
● Chemical Level: - atoms (e.g. carbon) combine
to form molecules (e.g. glucose)
● Cellular level:
● Smallest living units in organisms
● Tissue level - different groups of cells that perform
a function
● Organ Level - Different types of tissues that
perform a common function
● Organ system – consists of the 11 organs that
work closely together
● Organism – human being
 Levels of Structural Organization

Smooth muscle cell

Molecules

2 Cellular level
Atoms
Cells are made up of
molecules.

1 Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules.

Smooth
muscle
tissue
3 Tissue level
Tissues consist of Heart
similar types of cells. Cardiovascular
system Blood
vessels
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle Blood
tissue vessel
(organ) 6 Organismal level
Connective The human organism
tissue is made up of many
organ systems.
4 Organ level
Organs are made up
of different types 5 Organ system level
of tissues. Organ systems consist of
different organs that
work together closely.
Figure 1.1
 11 Organ systems
 Integumentary
 ▪ Lymphatic
Skeletal
 ▪ Respiratory
Muscular
 ▪ Digestive
Nervous
 ▪ Urinary
Endocrine
 ▪ Reproductive
Cardiovascular

● do not work in isolation, but work together to promote

the well-being of the entire body
● all organ systems working together Integration
Organ System Overview
Integumentary
• Forms the external
body covering
• Protects deeper tissue
from injury and drying
out
• Synthesizes vitamin D
• Location of cutaneous
nerve receptors
Organ System Overview
Skeletal
• Protects and supports
body organs
• Provides muscle
attachment for
movement
• Site of blood cell
formation
• Stores minerals
Organ System Overview

Muscular
• Allows locomotion
• Maintains posture
• Produces heat
Organ System Overview

Nervous
• Fast-acting control system
• Responds to internal and
external change
• Activates muscles and
glands
Organ System Overview

Endocrine
• Secretes regulatory
hormones
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Metabolism
Organ System Overview

Cardiovascular
• Transports materials
in body via blood
pumped by heart
• Oxygen
• Carbon dioxide
• Nutrients
• Wastes
Organ System Overview

Lymphatic
• Returns fluids to blood
vessels
• Disposes of debris
• Involved in immunity-
destroys bacteria and
tumor cells
Organ System Overview

Respiratory
• Keeps blood
supplied with
oxygen
• Removes carbon
dioxide
Organ System Overview

Digestive
• Breaks down food
• Allows for nutrient
absorption into blood
• Eliminates indigestible
material
Organ System Overview
Urinary
• Eliminates nitrogenous
wastes
• Maintains acid – base
balance
• Regulation of materials
• Water
• Electrolytes
Organ System Overview

Reproductive
• Production
of offspring
 8 Functions humans must perform
to maintain life:
1. Maintaining boundaries – the inside remains distinct from
the outside, from cellular to organ system level
2. Movement – locomotion (muscle); movement of substances
3. Responsiveness or irritability – able to sense changes in the
environment and react to it
4. Digestion – break down food into simple molecules
5. Metabolism – chemical reactions within the body and all of
its cells
6. Excretion – removal of waste from the body
7. Reproduction – production of offspring at cellular or
organismal level
8. Growth – increase in cell or body size resulting from an
increase in the number of cells
 Survival needs to maintain life:

1. Nutrients (food) – chemicals contained in food are

used for energy and cell building
2. Oxygen – required by all chemical reactions that
release energy from food
3. Water – makes up 60-80% of body weight, provides the
fluid base for body secretions and excretions
4. Temperature – normal body temperature is necessary
for chemical reactions to continue at life-sustaining
levels
5. Atmospheric pressure – the force exerted by the
weight of air on the surface of the body; from which
breathing and respiration depends
 Homeostasis
● definition/ concept: ability to maintain a relatively
stable internal environment in an ever-changing
outside world
● needed for the body to function normally and to
sustain life
● all the body systems are working together to
maintain a stable normal range within the internal
environment as the body respond to external and
internal changes (examples: body temperature,
fluid balance)
● Keeps internal environment stable which is always
changing (dynamic state of equilibrium)
● homeostatic imbalance - failure to function within a
normal range resulting in disease
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

● Variables produce a change (stimulus) in the body

● 3 interdependent components :
● Receptor
- monitor the environment & responds to changes
- send information to control center
● Control center (integration center)
- analyze information sent by receptor
- determines the set point
- determines the appropriate response
● Effector
- provide the means to respond to changes (stimuli)
feedback
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
3 Input: Control
Information center 4 Output:
sent along Information sent
afferent along efferent
pathway to pathway to

Receptor (sensor) Effector

2 Change
detected
by receptor

5 Response of
I mb effector feeds
1 Stimulus: al a
Produces nce back to
change influence
in variable magnitude of
stimulus and
Variable (in homeostasis) returns variable
to homeostasis
I mb
al a
nce

Figure 1.4
 Response to stimulus

Negative Feedback
● effector negates or oppose the stimulus
(shuts off or reduce the intensity of the
original stimulus)
● most common way by which homeostasis

is maintained in the body

● example: regulation of room temperature in

a cold and warm environment

Negative Feedback:
Maintaining Normal Limits
Thermostat model
Negative Feedback
 Positive Feedback

● effector reinforce (increase) or exaggerate the

stimulus to push the variable farther
● NOT a way to maintain homeostasis
● in the body – only occurs in blood clotting and birth
Positive Feedback
Homeostatic Imbalance
● the body’s normal equilibrium (homeostasis)
is disturbed
● happens when the negative feedback
mechanism is overwhelmed, allowing the
(destructive) positive feedback mechanisms
to take over
● often used as the definition of “disease”
Anatomical terms
The language of Anatomy
 Learning Objectives
▪ Describe & demonstrate the anatomical positions
▪ Apply proper anatomical terminologies to
describe body directions, surfaces, and body
planes
▪ Locate the major body cavities
▪ List the chief organs in each cavity
 Learning Tasks
At the end of the session the student must be able to:
• Describe the normal anatomical position
• Apply the proper anatomical terms when identifying
and describing body in relation to direction, region and
structures
• Describe the different body cavities and identify the
corresponding structures these cavities contain
 The Language of Anatomy
• used to prevent misunderstanding and/or
confusion
• Exact terms are used for:
• Position
• Direction
• Regions
• Structures
 Anatomical position
● to describe body parts and position, an initial
reference point and directional terms must be
used
● to avoid confusion, the body is always
assumed to be in a standard position – the
anatomical position
● “Body is erect with the feet parallel and the
arms hanging at the sides with the palms
facing forward”
Anatomical Position

Body is erect with the

feet parallel and the
arms hanging at the
sides with the palms
facing forward”
 ANATOMICAL POSITION
- expressed in

DIRECTIONAL TERMS REGIONAL TERMS

- explain exactly where one body - uses body landmarks
structure is located in relation to another

Anterior Posterior
Orientation and Directional Terms

Table 1.1
Orientation and Directional Terms
Anatomical Position
● Directional terms
Body
Landmarks
• Anterior
Regional Terms: Anterior landmarks
● abdominal- anterior body trunk inferior to ribs
● acromial - point of shoulder
● antebrachial - forearm
● antecubital - anterior surface of elbow
● axillary - armpit
● brachial - arm
● buccal - cheek area
● carpal - wrist
● cervical - neck region
● coxal - hip
● crural - anterior leg; shin
Regional Terms: Anterior landmarks
● deltoid - curve of shoulder formed by deltoid muscle
● digital - fingers; toes
● femoral - thigh
● fibular - lateral part of leg
● frontal - forehead
● inguinal - groin
● mental - chin
● nasal - nose area
● oral - mouth
● orbital - eye area
● patellar - anterior knee
● pectoral - chest
Regional Terms: Anterior landmarks

● pelvic - area underlying the pelvis anteriorly

● pubic - genital region
● sternal - breastbone area
● tarsal - ankle region
● thoracic - chest
● umbilical - navel
Body Landmarks

• Posterior
Regional Terms: Posterior landmarks
● calcaneal- heel of foot
● cephalic - head
● femoral - thigh
● gluteal - buttock
● lumbar - between ribs & hips (loin)
● occipital - base of skull
● olecranal - posterior surface of elbow
● popliteal - posterior knee area
● sacral - between hips at base of spine
● scapular - shoulder blade region
● sural - posterior leg; calf
● vertebral - area of spinal column
 Body Planes
produced when body image is cut at different
planes resulting to 3-dimensional images

● Sagittal - divides the body into right and left parts

● midsagittal or medial – sagittal plane that lies on the
midline
● Frontal or coronal - divides the body into anterior
and posterior parts
● Transverse or horizontal (cross section) -
divides the body into superior and inferior parts
Body Planes
Anatomical Variability
● slight variation happens in the external and
internal anatomy among humans
● over 90% of all anatomical structures match
textbook descriptions, but:
● Nerves or blood vessels may be somewhat out of
place
● Small muscles may be missing
● extreme anatomical variations are seldom
seen
 Body Cavities
●Dorsal cavity
- protects the nervous
system

- 2 subdivisions:
Cranial cavity –
- within the skull
- encases the brain
Vertebral (spinal) cavity
- runs within the vertebral
column
- encases the spinal cord
 Body Cavities
●Ventral cavity
- houses the internal
organs (viscera)

- 2 subdivisions:
Thoracic cavity –
- within the chest

Abdominopelvic cavity
- encases the abdominal
and pelvic organs
Body Cavities
Cranial cavity
(contains brain)

Dorsal Thoracic
body cavity
cavity (contains
heart
and lungs)

Diaphragm
Vertebral cavity
(contains spinal Abdominal cavity
cord) (contains digestive
viscera)

Key:
Dorsal body cavity Pelvic cavity
(contains bladder,
Ventral body cavity reproductive organs,
and rectum)

(a) Lateral view

Figure 1.9a
SUMMARY
● Definition of anatomy and physiology
● Structural organization and systems overview
● Functions to maintain life
● Needs for survival
● Homeostasis and feedback mechanisms
● Systems integration and equilibrium
● Anatomical terms – orientation, position,
direction and planes
● Locations and contents of major cavities