Human influences on Ecosystems

Chapter 20
 Food Supply

• Thousands of Years Ago • After Agriculture Developed

• Hunted animals, gathered wild plants • Grew crops, raised animals
• Unstable food supply • Stable and reliable food
• Small, nomadic groups • Larger, settled populations
• No food storage • Food could be stored
Intensification of
agriculture

• 🌍 Amazon Deforestation:
27% may be without trees by
2030 due to expanding farmland
• 🚜 Modern Machinery:
Tractors & harvesters increase
food production
• 🔁 Repeated Ploughing:
Pastures are ploughed often,
leading to soil degradation
The use of Before: Natural Fertilizers

chemical Used compost, manure, and decaying

plants

fertilizers
to
Released nutrients slowly into the soil

improve Helped maintain soil health and

structure

yield Safe for the environment but not

enough for large-scale farming
 Why Change Happened
 🌍 Population growth → More food needed
 🌾 Traditional methods couldn't keep up with crop demand
 Farmers needed faster, stronger plant growth
 Led to the use of chemical fertilizers
 After: Chemical Fertilizers
 Man-made chemicals with specific
nutrients
 Nitrogen (N) → Leaf growth
 Phosphorus (P) → Root & flower growth
 Potassium (K) → General health

 Benefits:
 Fast-acting
 Higher crop yield
 Easy to store and apply
⚠️Disadvantages of Chemical Fertilizers
Can cause soil damage and reduce natural fertility
over time
Water pollution if washed into rivers/lakes

Overuse harms microorganisms in soil

Pesticides ; insecticides
and herbicides

 Why We Use Pesticides

• To protect crops from pests and
diseases
• Prevent loss of yield and ensure
food security
• Reduce damage from insects,
weeds, and fungi
• Help farmers produce healthy
and marketable crops
Insecticides and herbicides

Type What It Kills Purpose

Stop pests like caterpillars

🐞 Insecticides Insects
and beetles

Remove weeds that

🌿 Herbicides Unwanted plants (weeds)
compete with crops
What is
Selective
Breeding?
• Definition:
The process of choosing
parents with desirable traits
to produce better offspring.
• Goal:
Improve yield, quality,
resistance, or appearance.
Selective
Breeding in
Plants
 Choose plants with:
• Bigger fruits or seeds
• Better taste or color
• Disease resistance
• Drought tolerance
• Example:
Breeding wheat for high
yield and shorter stems
Selective Breeding
in Animals

• Choose animals with:

• More meat or milk
production
• Faster growth rate
• Good temperament
• Resistance to disease
• Example:
Breeding cows for high milk
yield
 Improved crop and livestock
productivity
Advantages
of Selective
Breeding Better resistance to diseases
and climate

Higher economic value

More consistent quality in

products
Disadvantages / Side
Effects

1. Reduced genetic variation → risk

from diseases
2. May lead to inherited problems
(e.g., hip issues in dogs)
3. Unethical in some cases (animal
welfare concerns)
4. Takes many generations to see
results
MONOCULTURE

 Monoculture is the farming method of

growing only one type of crop on a large
area of land.

 Why Do Farmers Use it

• It makes planting, maintaining, and

harvesting easier and faster
• Allows use of specialized machinery and
tools
• Can produce large amounts of the same
crop
• Helps farmers meet market demand for
certain crops like rice, wheat, or corn
 Negative Impacts of Monoculture

1. Loss of Biodiversity
•Only one type of plant is grown → fewer insects, animals, and other plants can
survive.
2. Soil Degradation
•Same crop uses the same nutrients every season → soil becomes poor and less
fertile.
3. Increased Pest and Disease Risk
•If one plant gets a disease or pest attack, it can spread quickly across the whole
field.
4. High Chemical Use
Farmers often need more fertilizers, herbicides, and
pesticides to protect the crop.
5. Environmental Damage
Runoff from chemicals can pollute rivers, lakes, and harm
wildlife.
Intensive Livestock
Production

Intensive
livestock
production is a The animals are
method of often given
farming where special feed,
large numbers medicines, and
of animals (such care to grow
as cows, pigs, or quickly and
chickens) are produce more
kept in small, meat, milk, or
controlled eggs.
spaces.
  High food demand – It produces large

Why amounts
Do of animal products to feed the
People Use
growing population.
 Less land needed – More animals can be raised
It? in a small area compared to free-range farming.
 Lower costs – Farming is cheaper and more
efficient, making food affordable for consumers.
 Controlled production – Farmers can manage
animal health, diet, and growth for better yield.
Negative Impacts of Intensive Livestock
Production

🐾 Poor animal welfare – overcrowding, stress, limited movement

🦠 Disease spreads easily – crowded conditions

💊 Antibiotic overuse – leads to resistant bacteria

🌍 Pollution – waste runoff causes eutrophication in rivers/lakes

Greenhouse gas emissions – methane from animals contributes to
climate change
🌾 Overgrazing – damages land, causes soil erosion and loss of
vegetation
💧 High resource use – large amounts of water, feed, and energy needed
 Habitat Removal

1. Destruction of natural habitats (hedgerows, meadows,

fields).

2. Caused by farming & urban development.

3. Leads to loss of species, food sources, and nesting

areas.

4. Major impact on biodiversity.

 Main Reasons for Habitat Removal

a) Agricultural Expansion
Clearing land for crop fields and livestock farming.
b) Intensive Farming Practices
Removal of hedgerows, meadows, and field margins to create large monoculture fields.
c) Urbanization
Building of houses, roads, factories—expansion of cities into natural areas.
d) Industrial Development
Construction of factories, mining, and infrastructure projects.
e) Deforestation
Cutting down forests for timber, agriculture, or urban projects.
f) Pollution and Land Degradation
Pollution makes habitats uninhabitable; soil erosion destroys plant life.
 Extraction of Natural Habitats

 Mining for Fossil Fuels

•Coal, oil, and gas extraction destroys large land areas.
•Open-cast mining removes soil, plants, and habitats.
•Causes landscape destruction and ecosystem collapse.
 Oil Spillages
•Accidental oil leaks in oceans and rivers.
•Coats birds' feathers, kills marine life.
•Long-term pollution of water habitats.
 Mining for Raw Materials
•Extraction of metals (iron, copper, gold) clears forests and hills.
•Leads to deforestation and soil erosion.
•Toxic waste pollutes nearby water bodies.
Freshwater and Marine
Pollution (Chemical Waste)
1. Copper Pollution
•Source: Mining waste, industrial discharge
•Effect on Marine Life:
• Toxic to fish gills, affecting breathing.
• Kills plankton and disrupts food chains.
• Bioaccumulates in shellfish, harming predators.
2. Cyanide Pollution
•Source: Gold mining, illegal fishing (cyanide fishing).
•Effect on Marine Life:
• Destroys coral reefs.
• Paralyses fish, leading to mass deaths.
• Toxic to aquatic invertebrates.
 [Link] Phosphates
• Source: Household and industrial detergent runoff.
• Effect on Marine Life:
• Causes eutrophication (algal blooms).
• Depletes oxygen in water (hypoxia), leading to fish kills.
• Disrupts aquatic ecosystems balance.
 4. Mercury Pollution
• Source: Industrial processes, coal-burning plants, mining.
• Effect on Marine Life:
• Converts to methylmercury in water—highly toxic.
• Bioaccumulates up the food chain (big fish, marine mammals).
• Causes neurological damage in fish and animals eating them
 [Link] Pollution

• Source: Oil spills from ships, drilling rigs, pipelines.

• Effect on Marine Life:

• Coats feathers of birds and fur of marine mammals,
reducing insulation.

• Poisonous if ingested by fish, shellfish, and seabirds.

• Blocks sunlight in water, killing plankton and coral reefs.

Human Debris & Formation of Micro-
particles:
 Untreated Sewage

•Releases microfibers from synthetic fabrics.

•Contains tiny plastic particles and chemicals that persist in water.

 Agricultural Fertilizers (Nitrates & Phosphates)

•Dissolve in water, do not form solid particles but cause nutrient pollution.

•Lead to excessive algae growth (eutrophication).

 Pesticides

•Persist as toxic chemical residues in sediments.

•Break down slowly into micro-contaminants that enter food chains.

Habitat Destruction Impact on Food Chain
& Food Web

a. Habitat destruction removes producers (plants, algae, coral reefs) and

shelter for animals.

b. This reduces primary consumers (herbivores) due to lack of food.

c. Secondary and tertiary consumers (predators) lose their prey,

disrupting the entire food chain.

d. In a food web, the loss of one species affects many interconnected

chains, causing an imbalance in the ecosystem.

Example: Island of Guam (Brown
Tree Snake Invasion)
 The invasive brown tree snake
was accidentally introduced to
Guam.
 It caused the extinction of many
native bird species that were
key seed dispersers.
 With fewer birds, forest
regeneration slowed down,
affecting plant biodiversity.
 The undesirable effects of
deforestation on the environment
 1. Loss of Biodiversity
• Destroys habitats of plants, animals, and microorganisms.
• Leads to species extinction and reduces ecosystem diversity.
 2. Soil Erosion
• Tree roots hold soil in place; without them, soil is easily washed or
blown away.
• Leads to land degradation, loss of fertile topsoil, and increased
sediment in rivers.
 3. Disruption of Water Cycle
• Trees play a key role in evapotranspiration (returning water to the
atmosphere).
• Deforestation reduces rainfall and can cause droughts in the area.
 4. Climate Change (Global Warming)

• Trees absorb carbon dioxide (CO₂); cutting them down releases CO₂
back into the atmosphere.

• Increases greenhouse gas levels, contributing to global warming.

 5. Flooding

• Without tree cover, rainwater is not absorbed into the ground.

• This increases surface runoff, leading to more frequent and severe

floods.

 6. Loss of Ecosystem Services

• Forests provide clean air, water purification, and climate regulation.

• Deforestation reduces these natural services, affecting human well-

being.
Forests and Climate
 Forests Clean the Air
•Trees absorb carbon dioxide (CO₂) and give out oxygen.
•This helps keep the air clean and cool.
 Forests Help Cool the Earth
•Forests provide shade and release water vapor, which makes the air cooler.
•Big forests help control the Earth’s temperature.
 Forests Make Rain
•Trees release water into the air (transpiration).
•This helps form clouds and rain.
 Forests Prevent Floods and Droughts
•Tree roots hold soil and absorb rainwater.
•Forests stop too much water from running off, preventing floods.
•They also keep the land moist, stopping droughts.
 Forests and Biodiversity

 Forests Are Homes for Animals and Plants

•Forests give shelter, food, and water to many living things.

•Birds, insects, mammals, reptiles, and thousands of plants live in forests.

 Forests Have High Biodiversity

•Biodiversity means many different kinds of animals, plants, and

microorganisms live together.

•Tropical rainforests have the highest biodiversity on Earth.

 Forests Protect Rare and Endangered Species

•Some animals and plants live only in forests.

•Cutting forests puts these species in danger of extinction.

 Forests Keep Ecosystems in Balance

•Forests are part of food chains and food webs.

•They help control pests, pollinate plants, and cycle nutrients.

Pollution
 Pollution; Sewage

 Dirty water from homes, industries, and farms containing

faeces, urine, food waste, soap, and harmful chemicals.

 Diseases Spread by Sewage:

• Cholera – Severe watery diarrhea.

• Typhoid – High fever, weakness, stomach pain.

• Spread by drinking water contaminated with faeces.

 Nitrates and Phosphates after
Sewage Treatment

1. Nitrates and phosphates are nutrients found in sewage.

2. Basic treatment does not fully remove them.

3. They stay dissolved in treated water.

4. They allow the microscopic plant life to grow very rapidly.

Nitrates and Phosphates from
Fertilizers
o Fertilizers used in farming contain nitrates (NO₃⁻) and

phosphates (PO₄³⁻).

o When it rains, these nutrients run off into rivers, lakes, and

seas.

o Overuse of fertilizers increases this runoff.

Eutrophication Process (
1. Nutrient Enrichment

• Excess nitrates and phosphates enter water bodies.

• Sources: Fertilizer runoff, untreated sewage, and detergents.

2. Algal Bloom Formation

• Nutrients act as fertilizer for algae.

• Rapid algae growth forms a dense layer (algal bloom).

• Sunlight is blocked from reaching aquatic plants below.

3. Death of Aquatic Plants

• Submerged plants cannot photosynthesize.

• Plants die and sink, increasing organic matter in water.

4. Decomposition by Bacteria

• Bacteria decompose dead plants and algae.

• This process uses up large amounts of dissolved oxygen.

5. Oxygen Depletion (Hypoxia)

• Oxygen levels in water drop drastically.

• Water becomes hypoxic (low oxygen) or anoxic (no oxygen).

6. Death of Aquatic Animals (Dead Zones)

• Fish and aquatic animals suffocate due to lack of oxygen.

• The area becomes a “Dead Zone” where life cannot survive.

DISCARDED
PLASTIC
Plastic and the Environment

 Plastics are non-biodegradable; they stay in the environment for hundreds of

years.

 Improper disposal leads to pollution of land, rivers, and oceans.

 Wildlife ingest or get entangled in plastic, causing injury or death.

 Plastics break into microplastics, contaminating soil and water.

 Microplastics enter the food chain, affecting animals and humans.

 Plastic waste blocks drainage systems, increasing flood risks.

 Large plastic accumulation forms garbage patches in oceans.

 Pollution from plastics harms biodiversity, ecosystems, and human health.

How Greenhouse Gases Are Formed
 Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)

•Formed by burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) in power plants,

vehicles, and industries.

•Released from deforestation (cutting and burning trees).

 Methane (CH₄)

•Produced by decaying organic waste in landfills.

•Released from rice paddies, livestock digestion (cows and

termite), and oil & gas extraction.

Greenhouse Effect and Climate
Change
•The Greenhouse Effect is a natural process that warms the Earth by

trapping some of the Sun's heat.

•Human activities increase greenhouse gas emissions (CO₂, CH₄, N₂O),

making this effect stronger.

•The enhanced Greenhouse Effect causes Global Warming — a rise in

Earth’s average temperature.

•Global Warming leads to Climate Change, which includes:

•Changing weather patterns (storms, droughts, floods).

•Melting polar ice and rising sea levels.

•Disruption of ecosystems and biodiversity loss.

Scientific Facts and Predictions about Climate
Change
1. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts that global

temperatures could rise by 1.5°C to 2°C by 2050 if emissions are not reduced.

2. NASA scientists confirm that the last decade was the warmest on record (2010-

2020).

3. Sea levels are rising at an average of 3.3 millimeters per year due to melting

glaciers and thermal expansion of seawater.

4. The Arctic could be ice-free in summer by 2050 if warming continues at the

current rate.
Conservation
 Conservation

 A sustainable resource is one that is produced as rapidly as it

is removed from the environment so that it does not runt out.

 Some resources such as forests and fish stocks can be

maintained with careful management.
-replanting land with new seedlings
-control the activities of fishermen
Tomato Fish Project

 The ASTAF-PRO Project- Aquaponic System for Emission-Free

Tomato and Fish Production
 At the same time in a closed greenhouse environment
 Both grow best at temperature of 27°C.
 Benefits-
-almost emission –free, CO₂ levels are not affected
-recycle water and does not put waste into the environment
- energy is generated by solar panels
Fish( Nile Tilapia)

• Survive well in artificial condition

• Grow and mature quickly

• Omnivorous as adults, no fish meal diet is needed, can be fed with

pellets of processed food from plants
• Produce waste (ammonia).

• Bacteria convert waste into nitrates.

• Nitrates absorbed by tomato plants as fertilizer.

Tomatoes
 Grow on mineral wool through which the nutrient rich water
flows
 Avoids soil which contain pathogens
 Hydroponics ( no peat is needed)
 When respire, water vapour is condensed and recycled into
the fish tanks.
 Harvest and sold under name fish tomatoes.
Conservation of forests
1. Education
•Education raises awareness about forest importance and deforestation
impacts.
•School Programs: Teach students about ecosystems, biodiversity, and
sustainability.
•Public Campaigns: Posters, media, and community events promoting forest
protection.
•Community Training: Sustainable farming, fire prevention, and tree care.
•Fact: FAO reports 10 million hectares of forest lost yearly; education reduces
this.
•Impact: Increases public participation in conservation efforts.
2. Protected areas
• Protected Areas: National parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and reserves.

• Purpose: Preserve habitats, prevent illegal activities (logging, hunting).

• Biodiversity Hotspots: Areas with rich species diversity protected from

human exploitation.

• Buffer Zones: Surround protected areas to minimize human-wildlife

conflict.

• Fact: Amazon Rainforest protected zones prevent deforestation in 80% of

managed regions.
[Link] quotas
•Legal Quotas: Laws limiting the amount of timber that can be harvested.

•Purpose: Prevent over-exploitation of forest resources.

•Logging Permits: Issued under strict regulations.

•Enforcement Agencies: Monitor logging activities and penalize illegal practices.

•Fact: Countries with enforced quotas (like Finland) maintain forest cover over

70%.

•Result: Sustainable timber industry with long-term forest health.

4. Replanting
• Reforestation: Planting trees in deforested areas.

• Afforestation: Planting trees in areas not previously forested.

• Community Projects: Local people participate in tree planting drives.

• Agroforestry: Integrating trees with agriculture for mutual benefits.

• Fact: China's "Great Green Wall" aims to plant 88 million acres of forest.

• Impact: Restores ecosystems, combats desertification, and supports wildlife

Why Should We Conserve Fish
Stocks?
•Prevent Extinction of Species: Overfishing leads to extinction of
species like Bluefin Tuna, Cod, etc.
•Maintain Food Security: Fish provide protein for over 3 billion people
globally.
•Support Fishermen’s Livelihoods: Millions depend on fishing for their
income.
•Protect Marine Ecosystems: Fish are a crucial part of the ocean’s
food chain.
•Economic Importance: Global fishing industry is worth over $400
billion per year.
 1. Education
o People often buy endangered fish species without knowing.

o Educating consumers helps them choose sustainable seafood.

o Educated fishermen use better techniques that protect fish populations.

o Fact: Awareness campaigns reduce demand for endangered fish by 30-

40%.

o Reason: If consumers stop buying overfished species, fishing industries

are forced to change.

 2. Closed seasons
•Fishing bans during fish breeding seasons to allow populations to

reproduce.

•Ensures that enough adults are present to maintain population levels.

•Helps prevent overfishing of young fish and spawning adults.

•Fact: Seasonal fishing bans help increase fish populations in affected

regions by up to 60%.
[Link] Areas (Marine Reserves)

 Establishing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) where fishing is

restricted or banned.

 Protects breeding grounds, nurseries, and biodiversity hotspots.

 Allows fish populations to recover in no-take zones.

 Fact: Fish biomass can increase by 400% inside protected zones

(WWF).
 4. Control of Net Types and Mesh
Size
 Using nets with larger mesh sizes to allow juvenile fish to

escape.

 Prohibiting harmful fishing gear that damages marine ecosystems

(e.g., drift nets, trawlers in sensitive zones).

 Selective fishing gear reduces bycatch (accidental catching of non-

target species).

 Fact: Mesh size control can reduce juvenile fish deaths by 50-70%.
 [Link] Quotas
•Governments set fishing quotas to control how many fish of each

species can be caught.

•Prevents over-exploitation and maintains sustainable yields.

•Quota systems can be species-specific and region-specific.

•Fact: EU quotas contributed to a 50% recovery of North Sea cod

stocks.
[Link]
 Monitoring fishing activities through patrols, satellite tracking, and

onboard observers.

 Enforces laws against illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU)

fishing.

 Data collection (catch reports, fish stock assessments) helps in

planning future quotas and conservation measures.

 Fact: Strong monitoring reduces IUU fishing by 30-50% in high-

surveillance zones.
 Endangering species and causing
their extinction
 Factors
i. habitat destruction
ii. introduction of other species
iii. hunting
iv. international trade
v. pollution
vi. climate change
 Ways to conserve species

 Laws to protect the habitat

 Wardens to protect the habitat

 Reducing or controlling public access to the habitat

 Control factors like water drainage and grazing which may

help to destroy the habitat

Education

 Become more aware of the important of endangered species

 Popular TV documentaries bring the issues to wider audience

 It creates a greater awareness of the threats posed to species

and the needs

Captive breeding and
reintroductions
 Before extinction, we can boost its numbers by breeding in

captivity

 Release the animals back into the environment

 The animals do not become dependent on humans for food

 There are suitable habitats left for them to recolonize

Seed banks

 Store seeds to protect plant species

 Help conserve biodiversity

 Act as a backup during disasters or crop failure

 Used for scientific research and crop development

Conservation Programmes

1. Lower species population = less genetic variation.

2. Less variation means poor adaptation to changes.

3. Small populations struggle to find mates.

4. Higher chance of extinction without conservation.

5. Programmes aim to protect species and genes.

6. Help maintain biodiversity and ecosystem stability.

Maintaining and Increasing Diversity

1. Around 25,000 plant species face extinction.

2. Extinction causes loss of hereditary material.

3. Crop gene pool could shrink by 10%.

4. Fewer genes = harder to improve crops.

5. Protecting diversity supports future food security.

6. Conservation helps preserve rare plant varieties.

7. Set up gene banks to preserve a wide range of plant.

8. The best way to preserve is to keep the plants growing in natural.

 Reducing Extinction

1. Conservation efforts focus on preventing extinction.

2. Once extinct, a species’ genes are lost forever.

3. Lost genes mean lost potential for medicine or food.

4. Genetic diversity is vital for future survival.

5. The endanger species may be useful for genetic modification.

6. Programmes protect endangered species before it’s too late.

7. Prevents permanent loss from global biodiversity.

Protecting Vulnerable Ecosystems

1. Programmes protect rare and special habitats.

2. Some species can only live in specific areas.

3. Wetlands, like Mekong Delta in Vitenam, are under threat.

4. Example: Sarus cranes live in wetlands.

5. Conservation restores damaged areas and biodiversity.

6. Protecting habitat = protecting all species in it.

 Maintaining Ecosystem
•Forests cleared for crops = fewer carbon Function
sinks.

•Burning releases more carbon dioxide →

warming.

•Biofuel farming reduces land for food crops.

•Increases food prices and food insecurity.

•Fuel production from plants is controversial.

•Species loss affects entire food chains.

•Overfishing reduces predators, causes imbalance.

•Example: fish-eating birds lose food → population drops.

•Guano from seabirds adds nitrogen to ecosystems.

•Nutrient cycles break if species are removed.

Artificial Insemination (AI)
1. AI is the process of inserting sperm into a female without
natural mating.

2. Used in animal breeding to pass on good traits (e.g. high

milk yield in cows).

3. Sperm is collected from a chosen male and stored or

frozen.

4. Many females can be inseminated using one male’s sperm.

5. Safer than natural mating – avoids injury or disease.

6. Helps preserve endangered species and improve

livestock quality.
 In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)
1. "In vitro" means "in glass" – refers to processes done outside the body in a lab
dish.

2. IVF is the fertilization of egg and sperm in a lab, not inside the female body.

3. Eggs are collected from a female and sperm from a male.

4. Fertilization happens in a petri dish, forming a zygote (fertilized egg).

5. The early embryo is placed into the uterus of the same or a different female.

6. Used in animal breeding programmes to increase population of desirable

animals.

7. Embryos can be frozen and stored for future use.

8. IVF helps in the conservation of endangered species, especially when natural

breeding is difficult.