OCR Biology A Level
Module 4 Revision
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4.1 Communicable Diseases
Pathogens
A pathogen is a microorganism that causes disease.
-Bacteria: Kingdom prokaryotae, reproduce rapidly in host, produce
toxins to damage tissues.
-Fungi: Have hyphae that extend to form a mycelium to disrupt skin or
vascular tissue in plants.
-Viruses: Invade cells and take over genetic information to copy
themselves.
-Protoctista: Animal-like. Enter host cells and feed.
Transmission of pathogens.
Life cycle of a pathogen must include:
● Travel from one host to another (transmission)
● Entering host tissue
● Reproduction
● Leaving host tissue.
Transmission can be direct or indirect.
Direct: physical contact, faecal-oral, droplet infection, spores. (All
affected by social factors: overcrowding, poor ventilation, poor health,
poor diet.)
Plant defences against pathogens.
Passive defences: present before infection to prevent entry and spread of
pathogen.
-Physical barriers: cellulose cell wall, lignin, waxy cuticles, bark, stomatal
closure, callose (polysaccharide deposited in sieve plates to block flow),
tylose (swelling in xylem vessel.)
-Chemical defences: terpenoids, phenols, alkaloids and hydrolytic
enzymes.
Active defences: pathogen attacks and chemicals are detected, the plant
then reinforces its defences: cell walls thicken, callose deposition
Primary Defences Against Disease
Primary defences are non-specific and prevent the entry of any
pathogen.
1) Skin: main primary defence. Epidermis (outer layer of skin) made
of keratinocytes produced by mitosis at the base of the epidermis
and migrate to the surface. As they migrate they dry out and
cytoplasm is replaced by keratin.
2) Mucous membranes: goblet cells secrete mucus to trap pathogens
and cilia waft the mucus to the back of the throat to be swallowed.
3) Coughing and sneezing.
4) Inflammation: Mast cells release histamine which causes
vasodilation to make capillary walls more permeable to WBCs.
Secondary Non-Specific Defences
Phagocytosis:
Macrophages are large WBC’s that travel in the blood as monocytes.
They carry out phagocytosis but do not complete the process. They
remove the antigens and display them on their surface to become an
antigen presenting cell to stimulate the specific immune response.
The Specific Immune Response
The specific immune response involves B lymphocytes and T
lymphocytes characterised by a large circular nucleus.
T cells can differentiate into four types:
● T helper cells release cytokines to stimulate B cells to develop and
stimulate phagocytosis.
● T killer cells destroy host body cells displaying the foreign antigen.
● T memory cells which provide immunological immunity.
● T regulator cells which shut down the immune response after the
pathogen has been successfully removed.
The Specific Immune Response
The specific immune response involves B lymphocytes and T
lymphocytes characterised by a large circular nucleus.
B cells can differentiate into two types:
● Plasma cells which release
antibodies
● B memory cells which provide
immunological memory.
Clonal selection is the selection of the
correct B and T cell.
Clonal expansion is the increase in
Antibodies
How antibodies work:
● Opsonins: each antibody can act as an opsonin by binding a
neutrophil to the constant region of the antibody and binding the
antigens on the pathogen to the variable region of the antibody.
This process brings the neutrophil closer together with the
pathogen.
● Agglutinins: each antibody has two variable regions so each
antibody can bind two pathogens and they are clumped together for
a neutrophil to engulf them all.
● Anti-toxins: antibodies can bind to toxins produced by certain
Primary and Secondary Responses
After the first infection a number of
antibodies are produced by the
plasma cells.
The number of antibodies does not
reduce to 0 due to the presence of
memory cells.
After the second infection the
number of antibodies produced is
much higher and produced at a
faster rate than the first infection
due to the presence of memory
Vaccine: introducing a version of the pathogen to the
Vaccination body to produce an immune response.
Herd vaccination: vaccinating nearly the entire
population to stop the spread of disease.
Ring vaccination: vaccinating people in the immediate
vicinity surrounding the discovery of a new disease.
4.2 Biodiversity
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is a measure of the different plant, animal, fungus and
other microorganism species worldwide, the genes they contain and the
ecosystems of which they form a part.
Habitat biodiversity: the range of habitats in which different species live.
Species biodiversity: the variety of species in an ecosystem.
Species richness: the number of species in an ecosystem.
Species evenness: the number of organisms in each species.
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is a measure of the different plant, animal, fungus and
other microorganism species worldwide, the genes they contain and the
ecosystems of which they form a part.
Habitat biodiversity: the range of habitats in which different species live.
Species biodiversity: the variety of species in an ecosystem.
Species richness: the number of species in an ecosystem.
Species evenness: the number of organisms in each species.
Sampling Plants
Quadrats can be used randomly:
● Grid out area
● Generate random coordinates using a random number generator
● Place quadrat at specified coordinates
● Record percentage cover in results table
● Use identification key if necessary
● Take at least 10 samples
● Multiply up into the total area so it is representative of the whole
area.
Quadrats can be used with a transect which is a line taken across the
habitat. Samples are taken along the line at set intervals which is an
Sampling Animals
Mark release recapture:
● Used to estimate population size
● Capture a sample of animals
● Mark each individual with a non toxic, non visible mark
● Release the captured animals and leave for long enough so they can
reintegrate into the population
● Capture a second set of organisms and note down how many had a mark on
● Then use the equation: number in 1st sample x number of in 2nd sample
number in second
sample with a mark on
Simpson’s Index of Diversity: a measure of
diversity
A high value indicates a diverse habitat.
A low value suggests a habitat dominated by a few species. A small
change to the environment could damage the whole habitat.
Calculating Genetic Diversity
Polymorphic gene loci: some loci have more than two alleles. This
increases genetic diversity.
Reasons to maintain
Factors affecting biodiversity?
biodiversity:
● Human population growth ● Interdependence of organisms
● Agriculture ● Genetic resource
● Climate Change ● Economic reasons
● Extinction ● Aesthetic reasons
Conservation
In situ: active management to maintain the biodiversity in the natural
environment.
Ex situ: conservation outside the normal habitat of the species.
Protection of species and habitats:
● CITES
● Rio Convention on Biological Diversity
● The Countryside Stewardship Scheme
4.3 Classification and Evolution
Biological Classification
Classification: process of
placing living organisms into
groups.
The reasons for this:
● Convenience
● To make the study of living Binomial naming system:
organisms more
manageable First part refers to the genus, second part
● To make it easier to identify refers to the species.
organisms
5 Kingdoms
Evidence used in classification
Observable features
Cytochrome c
DNA
Amino acid sequence
3 domain classification system:
More similarities between archaea
and eukaryotes. More differences
between bacteria and the others
so grouped separately.
Key definitions
Artificial classification: based on few characteristics, does not reflect
evolutionary relationships, limited information, stable.
Natural classification: uses many characteristics, reflects evolutionary
relationships, useful information, may change with advancing
knowledge.
Phylogeny: the study of evolutionary relationships between organisms.
Natural Selection
1. Variation within a species
2. Organisms with an advantageous allele that are better adapted to
the environment survive
3. Those that survive will therefore reproduce
4. They will pass on the advantageous allele to the offspring.
5. Over many generations, allele frequency will increase
Evidence for Evolution
Fossil evidence
Biological molecules: cytochrome c
DNA.
V Variation: differences between individuals.
A
R Genetic variation: caused by possessing a different combination of
I alleles.
A Environmental variation: caused by response to environmental factors.
T
I Continuous variation: variation where there are two extremes and a
O range of values within the extremes.
N Discontinuous variation: variation where there are discrete groups and
no overlap in between them.
Continuous: Discontinuous:
Line graph Bar chart
Genetic & environmental Genetic causes
Causes Eg blood groups, shoe size
Eg: height, leaf SA
Statistics
Standard deviation: measure of variation/spread from the mean.
Student t-test: used to compare two means.
Correlation coefficient: considers the relationships between two sets of data.
Degrees of freedom = (n-1). Use the degrees of freedom to find the critical value
in the table. If the calculated value is higher than the critical value then the
difference between the two data sets is significant, reject null hypothesis.
Adaptations
An adaptation is any variation that helps organisms to survive.
Marram Grass
Anatomical adaptations: long roots, widespread roots, curled leaves,
hairs on lower epidermis, stomata in pits, low density of stomata, thick
waxy cuticle.
Behavioural adaptations: rolling leaves more slightly, closing the
stomata.
Physiological/biochemical adaptations: guard cells lose water and
turgidity to roll leaf, guard cells work similarly to open and close