Computer Organization and Architecture

Tutorial
• Computer Organization and Architecture provides in-depth knowledge of
internal working, structuring, and implementation of a computer system.

• Whereas, Organization defines the way the system is structured so that all those
catalogued tools can be used properly.

• Our Computer Organization and Architecture Tutorial includes all topics of such
as introduction, ER model, keys, relational model, join operation, SQL, functional
dependency, transaction, concurrency control, etc.
Computer Architecture Computer Organization

Computer Architecture is concerned with the Computer Organization is concerned

way hardware components are connected with the structure and behaviour of a
together to form a computer system. computer system as seen by the user.

It acts as the interface between hardware It deals with the components of a

and software. connection in a system.
Computer Architecture helps us to Computer Organization tells us how
understand the functionalities of a system. exactly all the units in the system are
arranged and interconnected.

A programmer can view architecture in Whereas Organization expresses the

terms of instructions, addressing modes and realization of architecture.
registers.
While designing a computer system An organization is done on the basis of
architecture is considered first. architecture.
Computer Architecture deals with high-level Computer Organization deals with low-
design issues. level design issues.
Architecture involves Logic (Instruction sets, Organization involves Physical
Addressing modes, Data types, Cache Components (Circuit design, Adders,
optimization) Signals, Peripherals)
DIGITAL COMPUTER
• What is a digital computer?

• digital computer, any of a class of devices capable of solving problems

by processing information in discrete form. It operates on data,
including magnitudes, letters, and symbols, that are expressed in
binary code—i.e., using only the two digits 0 and 1.
 INTRODUCTION
A Digital computer can be considered as a digital system that performs various
computational tasks.

The first electronic digital computer was developed in the late 1940s and was
used primarily for numerical computations.

By convention, the digital computers use the binary number system, which has
two digits: 0 and 1. A binary digit is called a bit.

A computer system is subdivided into two functional entities: Hardware and

Software.

The hardware consists of all the electronic components and electromechanical

devices that comprise the physical entity of the device.

The software of the computer consists of the instructions and data that the
computer manipulates to perform various data-processing tasks.
• The Central Processing Unit (CPU) contains an arithmetic and
logic unit for manipulating data, a number of registers for
storing data, and a control circuit for fetching and executing
instructions.
• The memory unit of a digital computer contains storage for
instructions and data.
• The Random Access Memory (RAM) for real-time processing
of the data.
• The Input-Output devices for generating inputs from the user
and displaying the final results to the user.
• The Input-Output devices connected to the computer include
the keyboard, mouse, terminals, magnetic disk drives, and
other communication devices.
Register Transfer Language (RTL)
In symbolic notation, it is used to describe the micro-operations transfer among
registers. It is a kind of intermediate representation (IR) that is very close to
assembly language, such as that which is used in a [Link] term “Register
Transfer” can perform micro-operations and transfer the result of operation to the
same or other register.
Micro-operations :
The operation executed on the data store in registers are called micro-operations.
They are detailed low-level instructions used in some designs to implement
complex machine instructions.
Register Transfer :
The information transformed from one register to another register is represented
in symbolic form by replacement operator is called Register Transfer.
Replacement Operator :
In the statement, R2 <- R1, <- acts as a replacement operator. This statement
defines the transfer of content of register R1 into register R2.
There are various methods of RTL –
1. General way of representing a register is by the name of the register enclosed in a
rectangular box as shown in (a).

2. Register is numbered in a sequence of 0 to (n-1) as shown in (b).

3. The numbering of bits in a register can be marked on the top of the box as shown
in (c).

4. A 16-bit register PC is divided into 2 parts- Bits (0 to 7) are assigned with lower
byte of 16-bit address and bits (8 to 15) are assigned with higher bytes of 16-bit
address as shown in (d).
 Basic symbols of RTL :
Symbol Description Example

Letters and Numbers Denotes a Register MAR, R1, R2

R1(8-bit)
() Denotes a part of register
R1(0-7)

Denotes a transfer of
<- information R2 <- R1

Specify two micro-operations of R1 <- R2

, Register Transfer R2 <- R1

P : R2 <- R1
: Denotes conditional operations if P=1

Denotes another name for an

Naming Operator (:=) already existing register/alias Ra := R1
Register Transfer Operations:
The operation performed on the data stored in the registers are referred
to as register transfer operations.
There are different types of register transfer operations:
1. Simple Transfer – R2 <- R1
The content of R1 are copied into R2 without affecting the content of R1. It is an unconditional
type of transfer operation.
2. Conditional Transfer –

It indicates that if P=1, then the content of R1 is transferred to R2. It is a

unidirectional operation.
3. Simultaneous Operations –
If 2 or more operations are to occur simultaneously then they are separated with
comma (,).

If the control function P=1, then load the content of R1 into R2 and at the
same clock load the content of R2 into R1.
Bus and Memory Transfers
•A digital system composed of many registers, and paths must be provided to transfer
information from one register to another. The number of wires connecting all of the
registers will be excessive if separate lines are used between each register and all other
registers in the system.
•A bus structure, on the other hand, is more efficient for transferring information
between registers in a multi-register configuration system.
•A bus consists of a set of common lines, one for each bit of register, through which
binary information is transferred one at a time. Control signals determine which
register is selected by the bus during a particular register transfer.
•The following block diagram shows a Bus system for four registers. It is constructed
with the help of four 4 * 1 Multiplexers each having four data inputs (0 through 3) and
two selection inputs (S1 and S2).
•We have used labels to make it more convenient for you to understand the input-
output configuration of a Bus system for four registers. For instance, output 1 of
register A is connected to input 0 of MUX1.
1. The two selection lines S1 and S2 are connected to the selection inputs of all four multiplexers. The
selection lines choose the four bits of one register and transfer them into the four-line common bus.
2. When both of the select lines are at low logic, i.e. S1S0 = 00, the 0 data inputs of all four
multiplexers are selected and applied to the outputs that forms the bus. This, in turn, causes the bus
lines to receive the content of register A since the outputs of this register are connected to the 0
data inputs of the multiplexers.
3. Similarly, when S1S0 = 01, register B is selected, and the bus lines will receive the content provided
by register B.
4. The following function table shows the register that is selected by the bus for each of the four
possible binary values of the Selection lines.
The three state gates can be considered as a digital circuit that has three
gates, two of which are signals equivalent to logic 1 and 0 as in a
conventional gate. However, the third gate exhibits a high-impedance
state.
The most commonly used three state gates in case of the bus system is
a buffer gate.
The graphical symbol of a three-state buffer gate can be represented as:
The following diagram demonstrates the construction of a bus system with three-
state buffers.
•The outputs generated by the four buffers are connected to form a single
bus line.
•Only one buffer can be in active state at a given point of time.
•The control inputs to the buffers determine which of the four normal
inputs will communicate with the bus line.
•A 2 * 4 decoder ensures that no more than one control input is active at
any given point of time.
Memory Transfer
•Most of the standard notations used for specifying operations on memory
transfer are stated below.

•The transfer of information from a memory unit to the user end is called
a Read operation.
•The transfer of new information to be stored in the memory is called
a Write operation.
•A memory word is designated by the letter M.
•We must specify the address of memory word while writing the memory
transfer operations.
•The address register is designated by AR and the data register by DR.
•Thus, a read operation can be stated as:
Read: DR ← M [AR]

•The Read statement causes a transfer of information into the data register (DR) from the memory
word (M) selected by the address register (AR).
•And the corresponding write operation can be stated as:

Write: M [AR] ← R1

•The Write statement causes a transfer of information from register R1 into the memory word (M)
selected by address register (AR).
 As you know, a computer works on instructions. Our systems
consist of machine instructions to perform some operations like
add, subtract, multiply, divide etc. To perform these operations,
the system stores the data in registers. Now, to operate this
data, the CPU has micro-operations. A micro-operation is a
simple operation performed on the data stored in one or more
registers. They transfer the data between registers. There are
four types of micro-operations:-
1. Register micro-operations
2. Arithmetic micro-operations
3. Logic micro-operations
4. Shift micro-operations
 Arithmetic Micro-operations
In general, the Arithmetic Micro-operations deals with the operations performed
on numeric data stored in the registers.
The basic Arithmetic Micro-operations are classified in the following categories:
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
Some additional Arithmetic Micro-operations are classified as:
[Link] with carry
[Link] with borrow
[Link]/Load, etc.
The following table shows the symbolic representation of various Arithmetic
Micro-operations.

Symbolic Representation Description

R3 ← R1 + R2 The contents of R1 plus R2 are

transferred to R3.
R3 ← R1 - R2 The contents of R1 minus R2 are
transferred to R3.
R2 ← R2' Complement the contents of R2 (1's
complement)
R2 ← R2' + 1 2's complement the contents of R2
(negate)
R3 ← R1 + R2' + 1 R1 plus the 2's complement of R2
(subtraction)
R1 ← R1 + 1 Increment the contents of R1 by one

R1 ← R1 - 1 Decrement the contents of R1 by one

What are Logic Micro-Operations?
Logic micro-operations are used on the bits of data stored in registers. These micro-operations
treat each bit independently and create binary variables from them.
There are a total of 16 micro-operations available. These are-
Before discussing these logic micro-operations, let’s discuss their truth tables.
The below diagram shows the truth table for all the 16 logic micro-operations mentioned
above. Here, x and y are the variables or registers in which the data is stored and F0, F1,
….., F15 are the outputs that occur after performing these logic micro-operations.
1. Clear
The Clear logic micro-operation is used to clear the register or set the
bits of the register to 0. To use this micro-operation, we need to feed
0 to the register. In the above truth table, F0 represents the truth
table of Clear logic micro-operation.
For example, F <- 0 means the value of the register F is set to 0 or is
cleared. The previous value of register F will be removed.
Boolean expression-
The boolean expression for the Clear logic micro-operation is F0 = 0
2. AND
The AND logic micro-operation performs the logical AND between the bits of the data stored in the two registers. The
symbol to represent the logical AND is ∧ .
Case 1: Both x and y values are true.
In the first case, if the values of both two registers are true then the result of AND operation is 1; else, it is 0.
F1 represents the truth table of AND logic micro-operation in the above truth table.
For example, F <- A ∧ B means the registers A and B value will undergo AND micro-operation, and the output will be
stored in register F.
Boolean expression-
The boolean expression for the AND logic micro-operation will be F1 = x.y

Case 2: x is true, and y is false.

The logical AND operation we discussed above gives output 1 when both x and y are true. There is also another AND
operation which includes x but not y. Also known as inhibition, here for performing the AND operation, the first value
is taken from the x variable or register. The second value is taken as the complement of the y variable or register. If
the value of the x register is true and of the y register is false, then the result of AND operation is 1; else, it is 0.
F2 represents the truth table of inhibition AND logic micro-operation in the above truth table.
For example, F <- A ∧ B’ means the value of the registers A and complement B will undergo AND micro-operation,
and the output will be stored in register F.
Boolean expression-
The boolean expression for the AND logic micro-operation will be F2 = x.y’
Case 3: x is false, and y is true.
The third case of logical AND operation includes y but not x. Also known
as inhibition, here for performing the AND operation, the first value is taken as
the complement of the x variable or register, and the second value is taken from
the y variable or register. If the value of the x register is false and of the y register
is true, then the result of AND operation is 1; else, it is 0.
F4 represents the truth table of inhibition AND logic micro-operation in the above
truth table.
For example, F <- A’ ∧ B means the value of the complement register A and as it is
B will undergo AND micro-operation, and the output will be stored in register F.
Boolean expression-
The boolean expression for the AND logic micro-operation will be F4 = x’.y
7. NOR
The NOR logic micro-operation is simply the opposite of OR logic micro-
operation. As the name suggests, it is Not OR. The output of OR micro-
operation is 1 when the value of either x register or y register or both x and
y registers are true. In contrast, in NOR, the output is 0 when the value of
either x register or y register or both x and y registers are true, and it is 1
when both x and y registers are false. In the above truth table,
F8 represents the truth table of NOR logic micro-operation.
For example, F <- (A ∨ B)’ means the registers A and B value will undergo
NOR micro-operation, and the output will be stored in register F.
Boolean expression-
The boolean expression for the Transfer A logic micro-operation is F8 = (x +
y)’
8. Exclusive NOR
If we perform the Exclusive NOR micro-operation, the output will be 1
when the values of both the x and y registers will be the same. They
can be true or false, but they have to be the same.
F9 represents the truth table of Exclusive NOR logic micro-operation in
the above truth table. The output will be 1 when either x = 0 and y = 0
or x = 1 and y = 1.
For example, F <- (A ⊕ B)’ means the registers A and B value will
undergo Exclusive NOR micro-operation, and the output will be stored
in register F.
Boolean expression-
The boolean expression for the Exclusive NOR logic micro-operation
will be F9 = x.y + x’.y’
9. Complement B
The Complement B logic micro-operation transfers the complemented contents
of register B (second register) to the output register. First, the content of the
register is complemented and then moved to the desired register.
In the above truth table, F10 represents the truth table of Complement B logic
micro-operation. Since there is a transfer of complemented data from the second
register to the output register in this micro-operation, its truth table is just the
opposite of the taken values of the y variable (1, 0, 1, 0).
For example, F <- B’ means the complemented value of register B is moved to
register F. The previous value of register F will be removed.
Boolean expression-
The boolean expression for the Complement B logic micro-operation is F10 = y’
10. Complement A
The Complement A logic micro-operation transfers the complemented contents of
register A (first register) to the output register. First, the content of the register is
complemented and then moved to the desired register.
F12 represents the truth table of Complement A logic micro-operation in the above
truth table. Since there is a transfer of complemented data from the first register to
the output register in this micro-operation, its truth table is just the opposite of the
taken values of the y variable (1, 1, 0, 0).
For example, F <- A’ means the complemented value of register A is moved to register
F. The previous value of register F will be removed.
Boolean expression-
The boolean expression for the Complement A logic micro-operation is F12 = x’
11. NAND
The NAND logic micro-operation is simply the opposite of AND logic
micro-operation. As the name suggests, it is Not AND. The output of AND
micro-operation is 1 when the value of both the x register and y register
is true. In contrast, in NAND, the output is 0 when the value of both x
register and y register is true, and it is 1 when either x is false, or y is
false, or both are false.
In the above truth table, F14 represents the truth table of NAND logic
micro-operation.
For example, F <- (A ∧ B)’ means the registers A and B value will undergo
NAND micro-operation, and the output will be stored in register F.
Boolean expression-
The boolean expression for the NAND logic micro-operation is F14 = (x.y)’
12. Set to all 1’s
The set to all 1’s logic micro-operations is used to set all the
register bits to 1. To use this micro-operation, we just need
to feed 1 to the register. In the above truth table,
F15 represents the truth table of Set to all 1’s logic micro-
operation.
For example, F <- 1 means the value of the register F is set to
1. The previous value of register F will be removed.
Boolean expression-
The boolean expression for the Clear logic micro-operation
is F15 = 1
Advantages of Logic Micro Operations in Processor Design
Below are some of the advantages of logic micro-operations.

1. Logical microoperations consume less power. Therefore they help in

building low-power consumption systems.

2. They are easy to scale and can hold larger amounts of datasets.

3. Logical microoperations can reduce the complexity of computations by

breaking them into manageable components so that they can be optimized
effectively.

4. Logic micro-operations are very fast and allow efficient processing of huge
amounts of data.

5. Logical micro-operations are very flexible and can be combined in multiple

ways to perform a wide number of computations.
Shift Micro-Operations in Computer Architecture
Shift micro-operations are those micro-operations that are used for the serial transfer of
information. These are also used in conjunction with arithmetic micro-operation, logic
micro-operation, and other data-processing operations. There are three types of shift
micro-operations: 1.

1. Logical Shift:
It transfers the 0 zero through the serial input. We use the symbols
‘<<‘ for the logical left shift and ‘>>‘ for the logical right shift.
Logical Left Shift:
In this shift, one position moves each bit to the left one by one.
The Empty least significant bit (LSB) is filled with zero (i.e, the serial input),
and the most significant bit (MSB) is rejected.

The left shift operator is denoted by the double left arrow key (<<).
The general syntax for the left shift is shift-expression << k.
Note: Every time we shift a number towards the left by 1 bit it multiplies
that number by 2.
Logical Right Shift
In this shift, each bit moves to the right one by one and the least significant bit(LSB)
is rejected and the empty MSB is filled with zero.
The right shift operator is denoted by the double right arrow key (>>). The general syntax for
right shift is “shift-expression >> k”.
Note: Every time we shift a number towards the right by 1 bit it divides that
number by 2.

2. Arithmetic Shift:
The arithmetic shift micro-operation moves the signed binary number either
to the left or to the right position.
Following are the two ways to perform the arithmetic shift.
1. Arithmetic Left Shift
2. Arithmetic Right Shift
Arithmetic Left Shift:
In this shift, each bit is moved to the left one by one.
The empty least significant bit (LSB) is filled with zero and
the most significant bit (MSB) is rejected. Same as the Left Logical Shift.
Arithmetic Right Shift:
In this shift, each bit is moved to the right one by one and the least significant(LSB)
bit is rejected and
the empty most significant bit(MSB) is filled with the value of the previous MSB.
3. Circular Shift:
The circular shift circulates the bits in the sequence of the register
around both ends without any loss of information.
Following are the two ways to perform the circular shift.
1. Circular Shift Left
2. Circular Shift Right

Circular Left Shift:

In this micro shift operation each bit in the register is shifted to the left one by one.
After shifting, the LSB becomes empty, so the value of the MSB is filled in there.
Circular Right Shift:
In this micro shift operation each bit in the register is shifted to the right one by one.
After shifting, the MSB becomes empty, so the value of the LSB is filled in there.
 Arithmetic Logic Shift Unit in Computer Architecture

Arithmetic Logic Shift Unit (ALSU) is a member of the

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) in a computer system. It is a digital
circuit that performs logical, arithmetic, and shift operations. Rather
than having individual registers calculating the micro operations
directly, the computer deploys a number of storage registers which
is connected to a common operational unit known as an arithmetic
logic unit or ALU.
Now, to implement the micro operation, the contents of specified registers are allocated in
the inputs of the common Arithmetic Logic Unit. The Arithmetic Logic Unit performs an
operation that leads as a result and gets transferred to a destination register. Arithmetic
Logic Unit may be a combinatory circuit in order that the complete register transfer
operation from the supply registers through the ALU and into the destination register is
performed throughout one clock pulse amount. Sometimes, the shift micro operations are
performed in a separate unit, but sometimes it is made as a part of full ALU.
We can combine and make one ALU with common selection
variables by adding arithmetic, logic, and shift circuits. We can
see the, One stage of an arithmetic logic shift unit in the diagram
below. Some particular micro operations are selected through
the inputs S1 and S0.
4 x 1 multiplexer at the output chooses between associate
arithmetic output between Ei and a logic output in Hi. The data
in the multiplexer are selected through inputs S3 and S2 and the
other two data inputs to the multiplexer obtain the inputs Ai – 1
for the shr operation and Ai + 1 for the shl operation.
Note: The output carry Ci + 1 of a specified arithmetic
stage must be attached to the input carry Ci of the next
stage in the sequence.
The circuit whose one stage is given in the below diagram
provides 8 arithmetic operations, 4 logic operations, and
2 shift operations, and Each operation is selected by the 5
variables S3, S2, S1, S0, and Cin.
The below table shows the 14 operations perform by the
Arithmetic Logic Unit:
1. The first 8 are arithmetic operations which are
selected by S3 S2 = 00
2. The next 4 are logic operations which are selected by
S3 S2 = 01
3. The last two are shift operations which are selected
by S3 S2 = 10 & 11
Computer Instructions
Computer instructions are a set of machine language instructions that a particular processor understands and
executes. A computer performs tasks on the basis of the instruction provided.
An instruction comprises of groups called fields. These fields include:
An instruction comprises of groups called fields. These fields include:

1. The Operation code (Opcode) field which specifies the operation to be

performed.
2. The Address field which contains the location of the operand, i.e.,
register or memory location.
3. The Mode field which specifies how the operand will be located.
A basic computer has three instruction code formats which are:
1. Memory - reference instruction
2. Register - reference instruction
3. Input-Output instruction

Memory - reference instruction

In Memory-reference instruction, 12 bits of memory is used to specify an

address and one bit to specify the addressing mode 'I'.
Register - reference instruction

•The Register-reference instructions are represented by the Opcode 111 with a 0

in the leftmost bit (bit 15) of the instruction.

Note: The Operation code (Opcode) of an instruction refers to a group of bits

that define arithmetic and logic operations such as add, subtract, multiply, shift,
and compliment.

•A Register-reference instruction specifies an operation on or a test of the AC

(Accumulator) register.
 Input-Output instruction

Just like the Register-reference instruction, an Input-Output instruction does not need a reference to
memory and is recognized by the operation code 111 with a 1 in the leftmost bit of the instruction. The
remaining 12 bits are used to specify the type of the input-output operation or test performed .

e
three operation code bits in positions 12 through 14 should be equal to 111.
herwise, the instruction is a memory-reference type,and the bit in position 15 is taken as the addressing mo

en the three operation code bits are equal to 111, control unit inspects the bit in position 15. If the bit is 0,
nstruction is a register-reference type. Otherwise, the instruction is an input-output type having bit 1 at po
 Instruction Set Completeness

set of instructions is said to be complete if the computer includes a sufficient number of instructi
each of the following categories:

ithmetic, logical and shift instructions

set of instructions for moving information to and from memory and processor registers.
structions which controls the program together with instructions that check status conditions.
put and Output instructions
•Arithmetic, logic and shift instructions provide computational
capabilities for processing the type of data the user may wish to
employ.
•A huge amount of binary information is stored in the memory unit, but
all computations are done in processor registers. Therefore, one must
possess the capability of moving information between these two units.
•Program control instructions such as branch instructions are used
change the sequence in which the program is executed.
•Input and Output instructions act as an interface between the
computer and the user. Programs and data must be transferred into
memory, and the results of computations must be transferred back to
the user.
Computer Registers
•Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept,
store, and transfer data and instructions that are being used
immediately by the CPU. The registers used by the CPU are often
termed as Processor registers.
•A processor register may hold an instruction, a storage address, or
any data (such as bit sequence or individual characters).
•The computer needs processor registers for manipulating data and
a register for holding a memory address. The register holding the
memory location is used to calculate the address of the next
instruction after the execution of the current instruction is
completed.
•Following is the list of some of the most common registers used in
a basic computer:
Register Symbol Number of bits Function
Data register DR 16 Holds memory operand

Address register AR 12 Holds address for the

memory

Accumulator AC 16 Processor register

Instruction register IR 16 Holds instruction code

Program counter PC 12 Holds address of the

instruction

Temporary register TR 16 Holds temporary data

Input register INPR 8 Carries input character

Output register OUTR 8 Carries output character

The following image shows the register and memory configuration for a basic
computer.
•The Memory unit has a capacity of 4096 words, and each word contains 16
bits.
•The Data Register (DR) contains 16 bits which hold the operand read from the
memory location.
•The Memory Address Register (MAR) contains 12 bits which hold the address
for the memory location.
•The Program Counter (PC) also contains 12 bits which hold the address of the
next instruction to be read from memory after the current instruction is
executed.
•The Accumulator (AC) register is a general purpose processing register.
•The instruction read from memory is placed in the Instruction register (IR).
•The Temporary Register (TR) is used for holding the temporary data during the
processing.
•The Input Registers (IR) holds the input characters given by the user.
•The Output Registers (OR) holds the output after processing the input data.
Timing and Control
The control signals are generated in the control unit and provide
control inputs for the multiplexers in the common bus,
control inputs in processor registers and micro-operations for the accumulator hardwired control .