• SHENEN GIBE SPACIAL SECONDARY SCHOOL

• CHEMISTRY GRADE 10 SHORTNOTE

• Chapter 2
• SOLUTION

• Prepared by Mohammed M.
2
 2.1 Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Mixtures
 Mixtures are combinations of two or more substances in which the
individual substances keep their own properties.
 Components of mixtures (unlike those of compounds) can have
variable proportions, can be separated physically, and retain their
properties.
 Mixtures are part of your daily life.
 the air you breathe
 the food you eat,
 most of the medications you use,
 the skin and hair products such as body lotion and shampoo, etc.
are all mixtures.
 There are two types of mixtures: homogeneous and heterogeneous
mixtures.

3
 2.1 Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Mixtures…
 A homogeneous mixture is a mixture in which the composition is uniform
throughout the mixture. i.e., it has no visible boundaries between the
components.
 Often it is easy to confuse a homogeneous mixture with a pure substance
because they are both uniform.
 The difference is that the composition of the substance is always the

same/constant regardless of the source or the way it is made. NaCl, for

instance, is always formed in a ratio of 23 to 35.5 by mass.
 But a homogeneous mixture of NaCl and water may be formed by combining
them in various proportions; 5 g in 100 g or 10 g in 100 g water; would all
give a homogeneous mixture of NaCl and water called a solution. 4
 2.1 Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Mixtures…
 A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture that consists of physically distinct parts,
each with different properties.
 This type of mixtures has at least two visible phases. Mixture of oil and water,
wood ash and water, sand and water, etc. are good examples.

Note: Mixtures have the following general properties "

 In a mixture each component keeps its original properties.

 The separation of components can be easily done.

 The proportion of the components is variable.

 Mixtures can be converted into component substances by

physical process and vice versa. 5
 2.1.1 Suspensions, Solutions, Colloids
• Objectives:
 describe a suspension;
 define the terms solute, solvent, solution;
 explain the different types of solutions;
 give examples for each types of solutions;
 describe a colloid.
 Mixtures can further be classified into
suspensions, colloids, and solutions.
A. Suspensions: suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the
solid particles are spread throughout the liquid without dissolving in
it.
Examples: mixture of chalk and water, sand and water, mixture of
slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) and water, muddy water 6
Mud suspended in
water Mixture of chalk and wate

Paints (water-based)
7
 2.1.1 Suspensions, Solutions, Colloids…

B. Solutions:
 Solutions are all around us. The air we breathe and much of what we
drink for example, coffee, and tea, and the fluids in our body are all
solutions.
 A solution is a homogeneous mixture of a solute dissolved in a
solvent.
 Because of dissolution of solute in solvent, the particles in solution
are of the size of individual atoms, molecules or ions.
 The solvent part of the solution is usually a liquid but can be a gas or
a solid 8
 2.1.1 Suspensions, Solutions, Colloids…
Generally, from the two components of solution:

the major component of the solution is called

solvent, and
the minor component is called solute.
• If both components in a solution are 50%, the term solute can be assigned to
either component.
• When two liquids dissolve in each other, the major component is called the
solvent and the minor component is called the solute.

Note that all solutions are homogeneous mixtures

but not all homogeneous mixtures are solutions. 9
 Properties of Solutions
A solution has a single uniform phase and has no visible boundaries
because the components are individual atoms, ions, or molecules.
 These components do not settle upon standing or separate by
filtration.
 The particles of a solution are very small that they can pass through
the pores of even fine filter paper.
 So, solute cannot be separated from the solvent by filtration. "
 The solutions are very stable; the components do not separate, neither
coagulate upon standing.

10
 Types of Solutions
 Although we usually think of solutions as liquid, they can exist in all
three physical states: solid, liquid, and gas.
i. Gaseous solutions:
 Gaseous solutions are usually described as gas-gas solutions where
both solute and solvent are gases.
 The atmosphere is a gaseous solution that consists of nitrogen,
oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, water (in the form of vapor), methane,
and some other minor components.
 The major component (Nitrogen) is regarded as a solvent and the
other components are regarded as solute.
ii. Liquid solutions:
 Solids, liquids and gases dissolve in a liquid solvent(always) to form
liquid solutions.
Some examples include carbonated beverage (gas in liquid), alcoholic
11
beverage (liquid in liquid), and sea water (solid in liquid).
 Types of Solutions…
iii. Solid solutions:
 Many alloys, ceramics, and polymer blends are solid solutions.
 Solid solutions have no restriction on the state of the solute but the
solvent has to be solid.
 Alloys are solid-solid solutions. Dental filling solution is a good
example of liquid (mercury)-solid (silver) solution.

 Other examples of solid solutions include wax, and H2 in Pd (gas in

solid; used for hydrogen storage).

12
 C. Colloids
 A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture in which insoluble particles of
one or more substances are suspended uniformly throughout another
substance.
Properties of Colloids
 A colloid (or colloidal solution) appears to be homogeneous but
actually, it is heterogeneous upon closer inspection.
 The size of particles in a colloid is bigger than those in a true
solution but smaller than those in a suspension. It is between 1 nm
and 100 nm in diameter.
 The particles of a colloid can pass through a filter paper. So, a
13
colloid cannot be separated by filtration.
 C. Colloids…
There are two phases in colloidal solution.
 They are known as the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium.
The component present in smaller proportions is the dispersed phase
while the one present in greater proportion is the dispersion medium.
 Colloids are quite stable. The particles do not separate on keeping.
 A colloid (or a colloidal solution) scatters a beam of light passing
through it (because its particles are fairly large).
 As a result, these rays as well as colloidal particles become visible.
 The phenomenon in which the particle in a colliod scatter the beams
of light that are directed at them and make the path of the light beam
14
visible is called Tyndall effect
 C. Colloids…
• This effect is not observed in true solutions. You may expect
suspensions to display Tyndall effect. But the Tyndall effect in
suspensions disappear as the particles settle down.

15
 Types of Colloids
Depending upon the state of matter present in the dispersed (internal)
and dispersion (external or continuous) medium there are 8 different
types of colloidal solutions (Table 2.1).

16
 Coagulation
 Coagulation is the process by which the dispersed phase of a colloid is
made to aggregate and thereby separate from the continuous phase.
 The curdling of milk when it sours is an example of coagulation.

Association of colloids
 When molecules or ions that have both a hydrophobic (nonpolar,
water hating) and a hydrophilic (polar, water loving) end are
dispersed in water, they associate, or aggregate, to form colloidal-
sized particles called micelles.
 The hydrophobic end point inward toward one another and the
hydrophilic ends are on the outside of the micelle facing the water
17
molecules.
 Association of colloids…
 A colloid in which the dispersed phase consists of micelles is called
an association colloid.
 Ordinary soap in water provides an example of an association colloid.
 Soap consists of compounds such as sodium stearate,
C17H35COONa.
 The stearate ion has a long hydrocarbon end that is hydrophobic
(because it is nonpolar) and a carboxyl group (COO-) at the other end
that is hydrophilic (because it is ionic).

18
 Association of colloids…
 In water solution, the stearate ions associate into micelles in which the
hydrocarbon end point inward toward one another and away from the
water, and ionic carboxyl groups are on the outside of the micelle
facing the water (Figure 2.2).
 The cleansing action of soap occurs because oil and grease can be
absorbed into the hydrophobic center of the soap micelles and washed
away.

19
 Figure 2.2 The cleansing action of soap.
 The soap molecule is represented by a polar head and zigzag
hydrocarbon tail.
 An oily spot can be removed by soap because the nonpolar tail
dissolves in the oil, and the entire system becomes soluble in water
because the exterior portion is now ionic.. 20
 2.2 The Solution Process
Objective: At the end of this section students will be able to:
 explain how the "like dissolves like"
rule depends on inter-particle forces of
interactions.
 A solution is formed when the solute particles are completely dissolved in the
solvent.
 Gases mix freely while the solute as well as the solvent particles are held to
each other by intermolecular forces in liquid and solid state.
 The solution process thus involves three basic steps;
i. breaking up the solute-solute inter-particle forces
ii. breaking up the solvent-solvent inter-particles forces
iii. formation of solute-solvent interaction.
 Thus, the extent of dissolution of a solute in a solvent is governed by
21
intermolecular forces.
 2.2 The Solution Process…
 The energy change associated with the dissolution process and entropy
(the increase in disorder) that result when molecules of the solute and
solvent mix to form a solution are the forces driving the solution process.
Note that: the formation of a solution from a solute and a solvent is a
physical process, not a chemical change.
2.2.1 Liquid Solutions and Inter-particle Forces of Attractions
 When a solute dissolves in a solvent, particles of the solute disperse
throughout the solvent.
 The solute particles occupy positions that are normally taken by solvent
molecules
 The tendency to mix is affected by the relative strengths of three types of
interaction. These are:
 Solvent-solvent interaction, Solute-
solute interaction, Solvent-solute
interaction 22
 2.2 The Solution Process…

Figure 1.3 A molecular view of the solution process, portrayed as taking

place in three steps.
 Solutes dissolve in a solvent when the inter-particle forces of
interaction between solute molecules and solvent molecules are
replaced by solute-solvent interactions. 23
2.2.1 Liquid Solutions and Inter-particle Forces of Attractions
 The useful rule-of-thumb “like dissolves like” says that substances
with similar types of intermolecular forces dissolve in each other.
 That means, when the inter-particle forces within the solute are
similar to those within the solvent, the forces replace each other and a
solution forms. Thus, by knowing the forces, we can often predict
whether a solute will dissolve in a solvent.
 Thus, ionic compounds like NaCl (that are extremely polar) and polar

compounds like ethanol (C2H5OH) dissolve in polar solvents (e.g.

H2O) and nonpolar compounds and elements (e.g. hexane, CCl4 , I2 ,

oil) dissolve in nonpolar solvents like hexane (C6H14), (CCl4), and

24
 2.2.1 Liquid Solutions and Inter-particle Forces of Attractions..

How can we Predict the Likeness of a Substance?

 One useful classification of materials is polarity
 In larger molecules, molecular polarity is determined by the net
dipole moment (imbalance of charge over the molecule); which in
turn depends on both shape and bond polarity.
 Dipole moment (µ) is a measure of molecular polarity, given in the
unit debye (D) derived from SI units of charge (coulomb, C) and
length (m): 1 D = 3.34 x 10-30 C.m.
 Substances with zero or low electronegativity difference in between
the bonding atoms and having zero net dipole moment such as H2 ,
O2 , N2 , CH4 , CCl4 are nonpolar
 Whereas H2O, NH3 , CH3OH, NO, CO, HCl, H2S, PH3 , etc. having
high electronegativity difference in between the bonding atoms and
having net dipole moment are polar compounds.
25
2.2.1 Liquid Solutions and Inter-particle Forces of Attractions…
 See illustrations below where the dipole
moments cancels out in carbon dioxide
(CO2) but add-up to give a net dipole in
water molecule (H2O).

26
 Inter-particle/Intermolecular Forces
 The gaseous state is characterized by absence of
interparticle forces and hence the molecules of a gas are
free to move independent of the other molecules.
 However, in liquids and solids, molecules are held together
by intermolecular forces between molecules.
Intermolecular forces are also called non covalent
interactions.
 They are attractive or repulsive forces between
neighboring molecules.
These forces include:

dipole-dipole interaction
 dipole-induced dipole interaction
 dispersion forces or London forces
 ion-dipole interaction
 ion-induced dipole 27
 Inter-particle/Intermolecular Forces…
 The relative strengths of these forces in order of weakest to
strongest is:
Dispersion forces < dipole-induced dipole <
dipole-dipole < H - bonding < ion dipole bond
 Note: Dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole, and dispersion

forces make up what chemists commonly refer to as van der

Waals forces, after the Dutch physicist Johannes van der
Waals.
 Ions and dipoles are attracted to one another by electrostatic
forces called ion-dipole forces, that are not van der Waals
forces.
 Hydrogen bonding is a particularly strong type of dipole-
dipole interaction. These forces play a central role in 28the
 Inter-particle/Intermolecular Forces…
Dipole-Dipole Forces
 Dipole–dipole forces occur between polar
molecules as a result of electrostatic

of
Figure 2.4 (a) Dipole–
interactions among dipoles.
[Link] of HBr in H2O,

forces
attraction
dipole
29
 Inter-particle/Intermolecular Forces…
Dipole–induced Dipole Force
 Arise when a polar molecule distorts the
electron cloud of a nonpolar
molecule .The solubility in water of
atmospheric O2 , N2 , and noble gases,

(b)

forces of
while limited, is due in part to these
forces.

dipole-induced
2.4

attraction
Figure

dipole
30
 Inter-particle/Intermolecular Forces…
Dispersion Forces (London forces)
 Dispersion forces occur between all neighboring
molecules and arise because the electron
distribution within molecules is constantly
changing.
 This type of force is also called instantaneous
dipole-induced dipole force. It is common to all
types of molecules-polar as well as nonpolar.
 But it is more important to account for properties
of nonpolar molecules.
Ion-Dipole Forces
 Ion-dipole forces are the principal force involved
when an ionic compound dissolves in water
(Figure 2.5). e.g. NaCl dissolves in H2O via ion-
31
 Inter-particle/Intermolecular Forces…

Ion–induced dipole forces, one type of charge-

induced dipole force, rely on polarizability. They
arise when an ion’s charge distorts the electron
32
 Inter-particle/Intermolecular Forces…
• This type of force initiates the binding of
the Fe2+ ion in hemoglobin to an O2
molecule entering a red blood cell.

Figure 2.6 Ion-induced dipole interactions.

(A) when the ion and the nonpolar molecules are
far apart,
(B) when the ion and the nonpolar molecule get
closer-the nonpolar molecule gets polarized. 33
 Inter-particle/Intermolecular Forces…
The Hydrogen Bond
 The hydrogen bond is an attractive interaction
between a hydrogen bonded to an
electronegative O, N, or F atom in one molecule
and an unshared electron pair on O, N, or F
atoms of another molecule.

Figure 2.7 Hydrogen bonding in water, acetic acid, and

ammonia. Solid lines represent covalent bonds, 34and
 2.2.2 Solutions of Ionic Solids in Water
 Many ionic compounds are soluble (at least 1 g
dissolves in 100 mL water) in water; however, not
all ionic compounds are soluble.
 Chemists refer to substances as soluble, slightly
soluble, or insoluble in a qualitative sense.
• For instance, KCl is readily soluble in water whereas
AgCl is insoluble. Ca(OH)2 is slightly soluble.

• Ionic compounds that are soluble in water exist in

their ionic state as hydrated cations and anions
within the solution (See Figure 2.8). 35
2.2.2 Solutions of Ionic Solids in Water…

36
 2.2.3 The Solubility Rules for Ionic Solids
Objective:
 At the end of this section students will be able to predict relative solubilities.
 Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of a
substance that can be dissolved in a given volume
(usually 100 mL) of solvent at a given temperature.
The solubility rules for common ionic compounds are
listed below.
 All common salts of the Group 1A elements (such as
Na+, K+, Li+) and ammonium, NH4+, are soluble
 All common salts containing acetate (CH3COO- ), or
nitrate (NO3 - ), and most perchlorates (ClO4 - ) are
soluble
 All common chlorides (Cl -), bromides (Br -), and iodides
(I -) are soluble, except those of Ag+, Pb2+, Cu2+, and
2Hg2+. All common fluorides (F-) are soluble, except 37
 2.2.3 The Solubility Rules for Ionic Solids…
 Most hydroxide salts are only slightly soluble.
Hydroxides of GI elements are soluble. Hydroxides
of GII elements (Ca, Sr, and Ba) are slightly soluble.
Hydroxide salts of transition metals and Al3+ are
insoluble. Thus, Fe(OH)3 , Al(OH)3 , are not soluble.
 All compounds containing sulfate (SO42-) are
soluble, except those of barium (Ba), strontium (Sr),
lead (Pb), calcium (Ca), silver (Ag), and mercury
(Hg)
 Except for those compounds following rule 1,
compounds containing carbonate (CO32-), sulfides
(S2-), oxides (O2-), and phosphates (PO43-) 38are
The dissolution of molecular solids also follows the same
rule.
 Molecular solids are made up of atoms or molecules held
together by London or dispersion forces, dipole-dipole
forces, or hydrogen bonds.
Examples of molecular solids include ice, solid carbon
dioxide, sucrose, sulfur, solid hydrocarbons (e.g.
octadecane, C18H38), etc.
 Polar molecular solids such as ice, glucose, and sucrose
dissolve in polar solvents like water.
 Nonpolar molecular solids such as sulfur, solid
hydrocarbons, etc dissolve in nonpolar solvents like
39
 2.2.4 Solution of Liquids in Liquids
 solutions can also be made by mixing two compatible
liquids.
 The liquid in the lower concentration is termed as
solute, and the one in higher concentration is the
solvent.
 For example, grain alcohol (CH3CH2OH) is a polar
covalent molecule that can mix with water.
 When two similar liquids (in terms of polarity) are
placed together and are able to mix into a solution,
they are said to be miscible.
 Liquids that do not share similar characteristics and
cannot mix together, on the other hand, are termed
immiscible.
For example, oil and water are immiscible because oil
is nonpolar whereas water is polar. 40
 2.2.5 The Rate of Dissolution
Objective: At the end of this section students will be able to
define rate of dissolution.
 Dissolution is defined as the process through which a
solute dissolves in a solvent (e.g. water) to produce a
solution.
 The rate of dissolution is the speed with which a
solute dissolves in a solvent to form a solution.
This largely depends upon two factors:
 the inter-particle forces and,
 to a lesser extent on conditions such as the
surface area of the solid solute, the temperature
and the pressure (for gaseous solutes) of the
system.
 When the solvent-solute interactions are stronger
than those between solute-solute and solvent-solvent41
 2.2.5 The Rate of Dissolution…
 A good example is dissolution of ethanol
(alcohol) in water.
 The increasing surface area of the solute will
increase the rate of dissolution because it
increases the number of solute particles in
contact with the solvent.
 Stirring or agitation of the mixture can also
increase rate of dissolution.

42
 2.2.6 Energy Changes in Solution Process
Objective: At the end of this section students will be able to
 define heat of solution, solvation energy and hydration energy
 explain how heat of solution is influenced by the inter particle
interaction forces.
 If you mix ammonium chloride in water in a flask, the flask
gets cold. But when sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is mixed in
water, the flask gets hot. Why?
 As discussed earlier, the solution process involves three
steps: breaking solute-solute interaction, breaking solvent-
solvent interaction, and forming solute-solvent interactions
or the mixing step.
 When the energy released during the third step in solution
process, i.e. the mixing step is larger than the energy
required to break the solute-solute and solvent-solvent
forces, energy is released-the process is exothermic.
 This energy heats up the surrounding and that is why the
43
flask gets hot.
 2.2.6 Energy Changes in Solution Process…
 On the contrary, if the energy released in the mixing
step is less than the energy required to break the
solute-solute and solvent-solvent forces, the dissolution
process absorbs energy from the surrounding and the
surrounding (the flask) gets cold-the dissolution
process is endothermic.
 The energy involved in the mixing step is called
solvation energy.
 Solvation refers to the process of attraction and
association of molecules of a solute and a solvent.
 Solvation energy is the energy released when solute
molecules are solvated by solvent molecules.
 Solvation in water is called hydration.
 Thus, hydration energy is the energy released when
solute molecules or ions are solvated by water
44
molecules.
 2.2.6 Energy Changes in Solution Process…
 The heat of solution or enthalpy of solution is
defined as the amount of heat released or
absorbed during the dissolution process and
can be calculated using the equation

-Where q is the amount of energy released or

absorbed in Joules (J),
-m is mass of the solution,
-T is the temperature change (Ti -Tf ),
-Cg is the specific heat of solution (J/[Link]) (can be
assumed to be the same as that of water, 4.184
J/g. oC for dilute solutions).
 The unit of heat of solution is Joule or kJ.
 Heat (Enthalpy) of solution can either 45be
 2.2.6 Energy Changes in Solution Process…
 The molar heat of solution (ΔHsoln) of a
substance is the heat absorbed or released
when one mole of the substance is dissolved in
water at constant pressure:

 The enthalpy changes are expressed in kJ/mol

for a reaction taking place at standard
conditions (Temp. of 298.15 K and a pressure 1
atm).
Example 2.1:
When 5.19 g of NaCO3 was dissolved in 75.0 g of
water, the temperature of the water rose by
3.8oC. Calculate the heat of solution and 46the
 2.2.6 Energy Changes in Solution Process…
Given
Mass solution = mass solute + mass solvent =
5.19 g + 75.0 g = 80.19 g
An increase of temperature means Tf > Ti. Thus,
T = Ti – Tf = -3.80oC
Number of moles of solute = given mass divided
by molar mass = 5.19 g/83 g/mol = 0.0625 mole
Required: q and ΔHsoln
Solution
q = mcT = 80.19 g x 3.820 J/g.°C x (-3.80oC) = -
1164.0 Joules Hsol = q/n =-1164.0 J/0.0625 moles
= -18,624 J/mole
47
 2.2.6 Energy Changes in Solution Process…
 To understand the enthalpy changes involved
during the dissolution, let's consider the
hypothetical three-step process
 Step 1: Solute particles separate from each
other. This step involves overcoming
intermolecular attractions, so it is endothermic.

Step 2: Solvent particles separate from each

other. This step also involves overcoming
Step 3: Solute
attractions, so it isand solvent particles
endothermic, too. mix and
form a solution. The different particles attract
each other and come together, so this step is
exothermic:
48
 2.2.6 Energy Changes in Solution Process…
 The total enthalpy change that occurs when solute
and solvent form a solution is:

Endothermic and Exothermic

Depending
Dissolution on the relative magnitude of Hsolute +
Processes
Hsolvent & Hmix, the Hsoln can be zero (ideal solution),
negative (exothermic) or positive (endothermic).
 Ideal Solutions (Hsoln = Hsolute + Hsolvent + Hmix
= 0)
 When the strengths of the intermolecular forces of
attraction in solute-solute and solvent-solvent are
similar to solute-solvent the solution is formed with
no accompanying energy change.
 Such a solution is called an ideal solution. 49
 2.2.6 Energy Changes in Solution Process…
 Ideal solutions is formed when structurally similar
liquids (gases) are mixed. For example, mixtures of
the alcohols - methanol (CH3OH) and ethanol (C2H5OH)
form ideal solutions, as do mixtures of the
hydrocarbons pentane, C5 H12, and hexane, C6 H14.
Enthalpy of Hydration (Ionic Solids in Water)

Where ΔHlat, Lattice energy, is the energy required to

break up the ions apart from crystal lattice.
 ΔHsolv, solvation energy, is the energy released or
absorbed when solute particles are completely
surrounded by solvent molecules.
 When water is used as the solvent, we use the term
hydration energy, ΔHhyd, rather than the more general
50
term solvation energy.
 2.2.6 Energy Changes in Solution Process…
• Hydration is usually exothermic, so heat is
released when water molecules completely
surround solute particles.
How does Lattice Energy affect the
Solubility of Ionic Solids?
 Breaking up the lattice is an endothermic
process.
 Hydration of ions favors the dissolution of an

Figure 2.9 The

energy on the
of
lattice energy

of
and hydration
ionic solid in water.
 Thus, Lattice energy works against the solution

ionic solids.
process (Figure 2.9), so an ionic solid with

solution
process
relatively large lattice energy is usually
insoluble. effects 51
 2.2.6 Energy Changes in Solution Process…
 Lattice energies depend on the charge on the
ions and also the distance between the centers
of the neighboring positive and negative ions.
 As the magnitude of the charge on the ions
increases the lattice energy also increases.
 For this reason, you can expect substances with
single charged ions to be more comparatively
soluble, and those with multiple charged ions to
be less soluble in water.
 Lattice energy is inversely proportional to the
inter-particle distance between the centers of
the two ions.
 Thus, CsCl has less lattice energy than NaCl.
52