ODA BULTUM UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF TECHHNOLOGY (IOT)

Dept. Of SE
COURSE TITLE: ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Program: Enrolments: Regular

Undergraduate CLASS Year:v
Compiled BY:Abdi
Credit Hours: 3 Kamilo (Engineering Academic year 2024
Semester: I Geology, Msc) Instructor: Abdi
Kamilo
 Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 Definition of Geology and Branch of Geology

What is Geology?
 The word Geology comes from two Greek words geo and logos: Geo means Earth and
Logos means study.

 Geology: is the science that deals with the study of earth as a whole and its surrounding.

 It is the study of the origin, age, structure of the Earth, its processes, its materials, and
its effect on humans and life in general.

 Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth as it provides the primary evidence
for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life and past climates.

 It also studies the evolution, modification and changes of surface and subsurface
features of the earth.
 Branches of Geology
 There are two sub divisions of geology, Pure geology and Applied geology.

 Pure Geology is a sub division which enable  Applied Geology is a subdivision which
us to understand about the Earth and to enable us to apply the geological principles
formulate geological Principles and laws. in the Exploration of earth resources.
It include  It includes:-
...Phsical geology
....Hydrogeology
….Mineralogy
..Engineering Geology
...Crystallography
….Geophysics
…..Petrology
…Mining Geology
…Geochemistry
….Economic Geology
….Geomorphology
……..Environmental Geology
……..Remote sensing Etc.
.....Historical geology
....etc.
 1.2 Origin and History of the Earth
Theory of Nebular Hypothesis
 Scientists studying the stars and the origin of the universe believe that about 12-14 billion
years ago, there was a giant explosion known as the big bang. This explosion produced the
atomic particles that later formed galaxies, stars, and planets.
 It is believed that about 7 billion years ago, one of the first generations of giant stars
experienced a tremendous explosion known as a supernova. This released huge amounts of
energy, producing a solar nebula, which is thought to be a spinning flattened cloud of dust
and gas.

 This spinning flattened disk is called the

protoplanetary disk.
 Our sun and its system of circling planets,
including the earth, are believed to have
formed from these protoplanetary disk.
 Most of the mass of the cloud coalesced as a result of gravitational
processes to form Sun at the center, which became a star and
began to “shine,” or release light energy, when its interior became
so dense and hot from the crushing effects of its own gravity that
nuclear reactions were triggered inside it.
 According to the nebular theory, planets, moons, asteroids, and
comets formed from the material in the outer part of spinning
flattened disk, the material that did not become part of the star(our
sun).
 Accordingly, as our Sun formed at the center, dust of gases
remaining in the outer part of flattened cloud disk have been
trapped in solar orbits as rings rotating around the young sun.,
similar to those we observe around the planet Saturn.
 The density of particles in individual rings was evidently not
constant, so gravitational attraction from the largest density of
particles in the rings attracted others until they collapsed into the
planetary system we have today in our solar system.
 Thus, the early history of planet Earth, as well that of the other planets in our solar system,
was characterized by intense bombardment of meteorites. This bombardment was associated
with accretionary processes—that is, the amalgamation of various sized particles, from dust
to meteorites, stony asteroids, and ice-rich comets many kilometers in diameter—that
resulted in the formation of Earth about 4.6 billion years ago.
 History of the Earth
So the Earth’s history starts from 4.6 Ba years ago
By this time the Earth The rocky mass uniform in
It Means
was homogeneous = composition and density throughout the
whole thickness
How did the Earth was evolved from the rocky mass to
living planet with three main layers, & atmosphere and
water?
 It is b/c of Differentiation
 Differentiation:- the transformation of random mix of chucks
gradually to a body distinct in physical and chemical properties.
Why Differentiation occurs?
The primitive Earth was melted b/c of :
1. Collusion with an other body
(Meteoritic impact)
2. the decay of radioactive elements
3. The conpaction of huge material at small volume
  All the above mentioned processes are contributed for the heat that coused melting of
the earth  Differentiation then begins.
 During Differentiation: the heavy materials sinking to the interior & the light
materials floating towards the surface.

 After Differentiation the earth become cooled &

solidified and gradually replaced by a series of concentric layers of
differing composition and density, with the formation of
three main layers: Crust, Mantle and Core
 Then the crust was tectonically deformed and eventually formed the
continents
1. Forming the solar system, according to the nebular hypothesis: A nebula forms from hydrogen and helium left over
from the Big Bang, as well as from heavier elements that were produced by fusion reactions in stars or during
explosions of stars.

1. 2. Gravity pulls gas and dust inward to form an accretion disk.

Eventually a glowing ball—the proto-Sun—forms at the center
of the disk.

3. “Dust” (particles of refractory materials) concentrates in

the inner rings, while “ice” (particles of volatile materials) 4. Dust and ice particles collide and
concentrates in the outer rings. stick together, forming planetesimals.
 6. Gravity reshapes the proto-Earth into a sphere.
5. Forming the planets from planetesimals: Planetesimals The interior of the Earth differentiates into a core,
grow by continuous collisions. Gradually, an irregularly mantle and crust
shaped proto-Earth develops. The interior heats up and
becomes soft.

7. Soon after Earth forms, a small

planet collides with it, blasting 9. Eventually, the atmosphere develops from volcanic
debris that forms a ring around the gases. When the Earth becomes cool enough, moisture
Earth. condenses and rains to create the oceans. Some gases
may be added by passing comets.

8. The Moon forms from the ring of debris.

 Origin of the Atmosphere & Hydrosphere

 The frequent collisions of the Earth with other

bodies led to extreme volcanism, which causes
volcanic out gassing probably created the
primordial atmosphere and then the ocean.

 Gases escape from molten Earth’s interior

through volcanic activity.
 We observe this happening in the present.

11
 Age of the Earth and Approaches to Determine Age of the Earth
Unfortunately, so far, scientists have not been able to find a way to determine the exact age
of the earth directly from its rocks as oldest rocks have been recycled and destroyed by the
process of Plate Tectonics.
Nevertheless, scientists have been able to determine the probable age of the Solar System
and are also able to calculate the age for earth by assuming that earth and the rest of the
solid bodies within the Solar System formed at the same time and therefore, of the same
age.
The generally accepted age for the earth and the rest of the Solar System is about 4.54
billion years (±0.5 billion years).
Thousands of meteorites, which are fragments of asteroids that fall to earth, perhaps provide
the best estimate of ages for the time of formation of our Solar System.
The distribution of impact craters that were caused by the fall of meteorites across the
world, number around 140 (these range in size from 1 to 200 km across).
Of these, ages of more than 70 meteorites have been measured using radiometric-dating
techniques and results show that the meteorites, and by extension, the Solar System, formed
between 4.53 and 4.58 billion years ago.
 The best age for the earth comes not from dating individual rocks but by considering that both earth and
meteorites are a part of the same evolving system in which the isotopic composition of Lead, specifically the
ratio of Lead-207 to Lead-206 changes over time owing to the decay of radioactive Uranium-235 and
Uranium-238, respectively.
 Scientists have used this approach to determine the time required for the isotopes in the earth’s oldest Lead
ores, to evolve from its primordial composition, as measured in Uranium-free phases of Iron meteorites, to
its compositions at the time these lead ores separated from their mantle reservoirs.
 These calculations result in an age for the earth and meteorites, and hence, of the Solar System to be 4.54
billion years with an uncertainty of <1 %.
 This age, thus, represents the last time that the Lead isotopes were homogeneous throughout the inner Solar
System and the time that Lead and Uranium were incorporated into solid bodies of the Solar System.
 Thus, as of today, the age of the earth is 4.54 billion years (4.54 9 years ±0.05 billion years) and is also
consistent with the ages of the oldest known terrestrial and lunar samples.
 On Earth, the old rocks, exceeding 3.5 billion
years, are found on all continents.
 However, a recent study revealed that the tiny
crystals of mineral zircon (detrital) from the Yilgarn
Block, Western Australia gave an age upwards of
4.4 billion years (the decay of radioactive Uranium
was used for calculating this age).
 1.3 Earth Now
 Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the fifth largest of the nine planets of solar
system.
 Earth is a largest of rocky planet which supports survival of a variety of life!
 As far as we know, Earth is unique from all other planets in this respect.
 Earth is the only planet on which water can exist in liquid form on its surface.
 71 % of the Earth's surface is covered with water. Water is essential substance for life
as we know it.
 The Earth's vast oceans keep temperatures stable - important for life on our planet.

 Generally earth is fortunate planet because:

 Its distance from the sun makes the earth unique
by having water in a liquid form. This is because
of the average surface temperature is 15oc.
 Composition of the atmosphere: O2 (21%), N2 (78%), CO2,
(0.04%) and water vapor.
 Daily rotation: 24 hrs. is balanced timing because
it provides optimum periods of light and darkness
 1.4 Internal structure and composition of the Earth
 Density is a key concept for understanding the structure of Earth. The differences in
density of earth materials lead to stratification (layers).
 The internal materials of Earth are separated into layers according to:
1)Mechanical/physical properties
2)Chemical composition

• Mechanically, it can be divided into:

• lithosphere
• asthenosphere
• mesosphere
• outer core and
• the inner core
• Chemically, Earth can be divided into:
• the crust
• mantle
• core
 Layers defined by physical properties
Lithosphere
Crust and uppermost mantle (about 100 km
thick)
 thicker under continents and thinner
under the oceans
Cool, rigid and strong solid that has brittle
deformation
Asthenosphere
Found Beneath the lithosphere
Upper mantle, and has ductile deformation
To a depth of about 220 kilometers
 It is so hot as a result it became :-
Soft, weak/plastic layer that is easily
deformed
zone where T & P are just right balance 
part of the material melts
 Mesosphere (or lower mantle)
 220-2900 km
 More rigid and stronger layer than Asthenosphere
because of high pressure at this depth offset the
effect of high temperature
- Outer core
• Liquid iron-nickel-sulfur layer
 Density 10-12 g/cm3
 2,270 km thick
 The outer core is so hot around 3700ºC.
 The metal is always molten.
- Inner core
• Solid iron-nickel alloy layer
 Density – 13 g/cm3
 high temperatures around 4300 ºC.
 Very high pressure, it cannot melt.
 Layers defined by chemical properties
Earth has 3 major divisions based on Chemical Composition:
- crust, mantle, and core
The boundary or demarcation (change in nature of materials) between major division is called seismic
discontinuity.
The two most important seismic discontinuities demarcating different zones/layers within the body
of the earth are:
(i) The Mohorovcic discontinuity :is crust-mantle discontinuity.
(ii) Gutenberg discontinuity: is the mantle-core discontinuity .
The Crust
 It is the outermost layer extending from the solid surface down to the first major
discontinuity(the Mohorovicic discontinuity) of the crust-mantle
- cool, solid, brittle, thin outer most layer of the earth.
- made up of light weight materials (light silicate rocks).

• Two types: Oceanic crust and a

Continental crust.
[Link] crust
- thickness - 40 - 70 km
- Composed of (felsic) Na-K-Al silicate rocks,
like granitic rock
- density – about 2.7 g/cm3
- geologically older.
2. Oceanic crust
• Thickness - about 8 km
- composed of dense(mafic) Fe-Mg-silicate
rocks, like basaltic rocks
- density - about 3.0 g/cm3
Mantle
 It demarcated from crust by Mohorovicic discontinuity and from core by
Gutenberg discontinuity
 2860 km thick(35-2890km).
 Constitute the major bulk of the Earth making up 82% of the volume and
68% of the mass of the Earth
 The mantle is composed of silicate rocks richer in iron and magnesium
than the crust.
 It is largely composed of olivine-rich rocks( Peridotite, Dunite, &
Ecologite)
 It has three main division
 Upper mantle (35- 660km)
 Tension zone(400-660km)
 Lower mantle(660-2890km )
 100- 220 asthenosphere
 220- 2890 Mesosphere
 Core
• extending from 2900km up to the Centre, 6400km .
• mostly made of iron – nickel alloys
• average density is 10.79 g/cm3
• constitute 16% by volume and 32% by mass of the Earth
• It has two division: Outer core and Inner core
-Outer core( 2900-5170km)
• Liquid iron-nickel-sulfur
 Density – 10-12 g/cm3
 2,270 km thick
 The outer core is so hot around 3700ºC.
 The metal is always molten.
-Inner core ( 5170-6400km)
• Solid iron-nickel alloy
 Density – 13 g/cm3
 high temperatures around 4300 ºC.
 Very high pressure, it cannot melt.
 Inner core remains solid because the rate of pressure is more than the rate of temperature. It offset the effect of
temperature and affect the melting point of the Fe and Ni alloys
 Evidence for Internal Earth Structure and Composition

How do we know earth’s interior

 structure
It is not possible to get a direct evidence to the interior of the earth. So
indirect methods have been used to study the interior of the Earth
 Earth scientists use the following techniques to determine the earth
internal structures:-
 Density: is a key concept for understanding the internal structure of
Earth and differences in density of earth materials that lead to
stratification (layers).
Meteorites Composition
 Rock records
Heat flow and geothermal gradients
 Geophysical Method- Seismic wave data: depend on the material properties
such as composition, packing structure, temperature, and pressure of
the media through which seismic waves pass.
 Laboratory experiments of earth materials brought to surface of the
earth by volcanic eruption from different depths.
 1.5 Definition of Engineering Geology and its application

A) Definition of Engineering Geology

 Engineering geology is the branch of geology which deals with applying principles for
geology for construction of civil engineering structures or for extraction of earth’s natural
resources.
 According to IAEG (2000), Engineering geology is a discipline of applying geologic data,
techniques, and principles to the study of both:
a) Naturally occurring rock and soil materials, and surface and subsurface fluids, and
b) The interaction of introduced materials and processes with the geologic environment, so that
geologic factors affecting the planning, design,construction, operation, and maintenance of
engineering structures (fixed works) and the development, protection, and remediation of
groundwater resources, are adequately recognized, interpreted, and presented for use in
engineering and related practice
 Engineering geology is the application of geology in design, construction and performance
of civil engineering works.
 It is an applied discipline of geology that relies heavily on knowledge of geologic principles
and processes and applies geologic skills to identify and solve an engineering problem.
 It fills the gap between Geology and Civil Engineering.
 Geology is the principle while Engineering Geology is the practice.
• Engineering geology is the science devoted to the site investigation and find a solution of
the engineering and environmental problems that arise as the result of the interaction
between geology process and human activities (AEG).
- AEG - Association of Engineering Geologists
• IAEG define Eng’s Geology as the study of earth materials and its interaction with
geological environments& engineering practice.
• Engineering geology provides basic geological data for the safe construction and
remediation/repair of engineering structures.
 B) Applications of Engineering Geology
 Since all engineering works are built on or in the ground and are constructed from material taken from ground,
the knowledge about the geology of the area is essential in all engineering works
 It is essential for the proper location, planning, design, construction and maintenance of engineering structure

1) Foundation Engineering and Building

 Almost all civil engineering
structures rests on the soil or rocks

 Knowledge of Engineering
Geology is essential to assure
that the structures are properly
supported.
 B) Applications of Engineering Geology

2) Transportation Engineering
Road beds are often built of soils or rocks, and
the roadways themselves can often pass through
mountains
Understanding Engineering Geology can
preclude problems related to cracking etc.
3) Hydraulic Engineering
Hydraulic structures such as dams are constructed
mostly on rocks.

Moreover, earth dams are constructed from soils

while rock-fill dams are constructed from rocks.

Therefore, knowledge of permeability and shear

strength of soils and rocks are very important.
 B) Applications of Engineering Geology
4) Slope Engineering
Slope failures are common are common engineering
geological problems that can lead to loss life, property
and infrastructures.

Soil slope failures mainly occurs due high pore water

pressure and low shear strength within the soil. In
rocks such failures mostly occurs due to low shear
strength and orientation of discontinuities.

 Therefore, knowledge of Engineering Geology is very

important to mitigate such problems
 Applications of Engineering Geology for other field
 For Civil engineering:
 Buildings, industrial and offshore foundations.
 Reservoirs, fills and embankments.
 Airports and industrial pavements.
 Bridges.
 Retaining structures.
 Tunnels and underground space facilities.

Environment: waste containment systems and site remediation.

 Military engineering: recent developments.
 Groundwater resources development and management.
 provides a systematic knowledge of construction materials, their
 occurrence,
 composition,
 Durability,
 Strength, deformability and other properties.
 What do Engineering Geologist do?
 One of the important tasks of an engineering geologist is to investigate the geological
conditions at a site and to present these in a simplified form (ground model or map)
 Models or maps should contain and characterize all the important elements of a site.
 As its name implies, it is an interdisciplinary
profession in which the engineering geologist works
closely with the engineer/designer of the project and
must understand and respond to the needs of them.
To do so, one must be proficient with the properties
and uses of earth materials.
 Engineering Geologist provides a systematic
knowledge of construction material, its occurrence,
composition, durability and other properties.

 The cost of engineering works will considerably be reduced if the geological survey of the area concerned is done before
start the project carefully.
 Before starting a major engineering project at a place, a detailed geological report that is accompanied by geological maps
and cross sections, is prepared. These helps in planning and constructing the project work.
 Thus the main tasks of engineering geologists are;
Description of the geologic environment pertinent/relevant to the engineering practice site.
Description of earth materials, their distribution, and their physical and chemical characteristics
at the engineering practice site.
Judgment/conclusion of the history of relevant events affecting the earth materials at the
engineering practice site.
Forecasting of future events and conditions that may develop in a given engineering practice site.
Recommendation of materials for representative sampling and testing.
Recommendation of ways to handle and treat various earth materials and processes (stabilizing or
making suitable).
Recommending or providing criteria for excavation design, particularly slope geometry to
stabilize.
Inspection during construction activities to confirm conditions/ requirements.
Etc…….
 Aim of Engineering Geology
 To assess the magnitude and nature of the reaction of the ground to both the construction
and the operation of the project
 The philosophy of engineering geology to attain its aim is based on three simple premises:
1. All engineering works are built in or on the ground
2. The ground will always, in some manner, react to the construction of the engineering
work
3. The reaction of the ground (its “engineering behavior”) to the particular engineering
work must be accommodated by that work.
 Aim of Engineering Geology
There are three verbal equations which were set out to arrive at the engineering behaviour of the ground.
These are common relations or equations between rock, rock mass and engineering structure:
1. Material properties + mass fabric = Mass property
2. Mass property + environment = Engineering geological condition (matrix).
3. Engineering geological condition/matrix + changes produced by engineering work = Engineering
Behaviour of the Ground.
 Let’s see all the variables in the equations above and their significance:
• Material: rock, soil, and fluids and/or gas.
• Material property: density, shear strength, deformability, etc.
• Mass fabric: beds, dykes, veins, joints, faults, etc.
• Mass: ground mass, volume of ground which will be influenced by or will influence the engineering
work.
• Environment: includes
climate,
stress condition,
Natural and man-made hazards and earthquakes, etc.
Time: through its life time, immediate after construction, and after construction.
 All the factors in the three equations expressed above leading up to the description of the
geological situation/ condition may be established by the process of site investigation.
 Aim of Engineering Geology

 The first equation includes the geology of the site at small (material
property) and large scale (mass property)
 Mass fabric describes the manner in which the materials are arranged
within the mass (in beds, dykes, veins, sills, etc.) and includes the
discontinuities (joints, faults, etc.) which ramify through the mass
Aim of Engineering Geology
 Aim of Engineering Geology
For proper determination of the reaction of the ground mass to engineering construction, the
distribution of material within the volume of ground shall be known
Aim of Engineering Geology
 The second equation relates to the geologic setting
within the environment

 The factors to review at this stage include natural

hazards such as earthquake loading, strong winds,
heavy rain and high groundwater pressures or flooding
and stress.

 In these equations all the factors leading up to the

description of the engineering geological situation/
condition may be established by the process of site
investigation
 Aim of Engineering Geology

 The third equation relates to change caused by engineering works addresses the interaction
between the geological and environmental conditions at a site and the construction

 The ground reaction (the engineering behavior of the ground) is determined by calculation
and judgment:
 If it is small and insignificant ……….. no need of redesign
 If it is excessive and disastrous ……… the project must be redesigned or moved to a
more suitable location.
 Generally Engineering geology is the application of geological knowledge in design,
construction and performance of engineering works; by studying:
Soil mechanics
Rock mechanics
Ground water effects
on engineering works
Effects of geological
structures on engineering
structure
Slope materials and its
stability
Geo-hazards processes
Etc…
 C). Relevance of Engineering Geology in Ethiopia:

 Dams and Reservoirs: for Hydropower, Irrigation, Drinking water, etc

 Railways,

 Roads,

 High rise buildings,

 Mining,

 Waste disposals and environmental issues,

 Energy development: Geothermal, Wind, etc.

 Geological Construction Materials

End of ch a p t e r o n e
Thank yo u a l o t … .
Have a ni c e T i m e
and
swe e t D r e a m s