MODULE-II
CELL DIVISION AND CELLCYCLE
• WHAT IS CELL DIVISON
AND CELL CYCLE?
• HOW DOES IT TAKES
PLACE?
All cells are produces by division of
pre-existing cells
BACTERIAL CELL DIVISION
• Prokaryotes do not have nucleus, hence they undergo simple division
called BINARY FISSION.
• Binary fission is a type of asexual reproduction typically observed in
prokaryotes and a few single-celled eukaryotes. In this method
of asexual reproduction, there is a separation of the parent cell into two
new daughter cells. This process happens with the division and
duplication of the parent’s genetic matter into two parts. Here, each
daughter cell receives one copy of its parent DNA.
• Binary Fission occurs without any spindle apparatus formation in
the cell. In this process, the single DNA molecule begins replication and
then attaches each copy to various parts of the cell membrane. When
the cell starts to get drawn apart, the original (actual) and replicated
chromosomes get apart.
The steps involved in the binary fission in
bacteria are:
Step 1- Replication of DNA
The bacterium uncoils and replicates its chromosome, essentially doubling its
content.
Step 2- Growth of a Cell
After copying the chromosome, the bacterium starts to grow larger in
preparation for binary fissions. It is followed by an increase in cytoplasmic
content. Another prominent trait of this stage is that the two strands migrate to
opposite poles of the cell.
Step 3-Segregation of DNA
The cell elongates with a septum (formation of new cell wall with the help of FtsK protein) forming
at the middle. The two chromosomes are also separated in this phase.
Step 4- Splitting of Cells
A new cell wall is formed at this phase, and the cell splits at the center, dividing
the parent cell into two new daughter cells. Each of the daughter cells contains a
EUKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION
Eukaryotes undergo a more complex process where the nucleus needs to split in the
process.
BUT HOW DOES
Hence, the division takes
THIS DIVISION
place in two ways:
TAKES PLACE?
1. Mitosis Through
2. Meiosis cell cycle!!!
Cell
divides
Hence, Cell cycle can be
defined as a process by
Reaches
Cell which a
parent cell divides into
optimum
division
size
cycl New cell
is born
two or more daughter
cells the entire
e sequence of events
happening from the end
of one nuclear division
to the beginning of the
next
Cell
grows
and
synthesiz
e
G1 S G2 M
Earlier, scientist used to
refer G phase as gap
phase or resting phase.
This terminology no
longer exists….
But Why???
G1 Phase
• First growth phase.
• Synthesis of RNA (rRNA, tRNA and mRNA) and proteins.
• Synthesis of rRNA indicated by the appearance of nucleolus.
• Protein synthesis takes place to synthesize,
a) Regulatory proteins (eg: Cdks)
b) Enzymes (DNA polymerase) for replication.
c) Tubulin and mitotic apparatus
• Repairs damage.
Terminally differentiated Somatic cells eg.
Neurons and straight muscles that no longer
divide, are usually arrested in G1 phase, then it
is called G0 phase
S phase G2 phase
• Synthetic phase of • Second gap or growth phase
interphase. (shortest phase).
• Replication of DNA (DNA • Synthesis of RNA and protein
synthesis) and Histones takes place
synthesis takes place. • Organelles are prepared in this
• Hence, by the end of S phase
phase, each chromosome • Cell prepare itself for M phase
has two DNA molecules and
duplicate set of genes
M phase (Mitosis)
In cell biology, mitosis is a part of the cell cycle in which
replicated chromosomes are separated into two new
nuclei.
• Cell division gives rise to genetically identical cells.
• The total number of chromosomes is maintained.
Therefore, mitosis is also known as equational
division.
[Link]
metaphase
PROPHASE
Pro: before; phasis:
appearance
• Each prophase
chromosome is composed
of two coiled filaments:
CHROMATIDS
• These sisters chromatids
are held by centromeres.
Further kinetochores starts
depositing over
centromere.
• Formation of spindle or
mitotic apparatus
METAPHASE (meta: after)
• The nuclear envelop
breakdowns and large
protein network called
spindle starts to oscillates in
search of Kinetochores.
• These kinetochores captures
spindle fibers.
• The chromosome become
thickest and shortest.
• The centromere occupy the
plane of the equator of
mitotic apparatus (also
called meta plate/ equatorial
plane)
Morphology of sister chromatid
Spindle Fiber Assembly • A centrosome is a structure that organizes microtubules during
cell division. Each centrosome contains “paired barrel-shaped
organelles” called centrioles.
• These microtubules forms the spindle fibers, when centromeres goes
to the opposite poles
• Microtubules are polymers of alpha- and beta-tubulin dimers.
• At Metaphase, microtubules subunits (tubulin dimers) are added to
the plus end (fast growing end) of the microtubule at the
kinetochore and are removed from the minus end (slow growing
end) at the spindle pole. Thus, a poleward flux of tubulin subunits
occurs with the microtubules remaining stationary and under tension.
Structure of microtubules
Dimers of α- and β-tubulin polymerize to form
microtubules.
ANAPHASE (ana: up)
• Each pair of chromatid split
giving rise to daughter
chromosome each with one
Kinetochore.
• Each chromatid is now an
independent chromosome with
its centromere moving apart.
• The kinetochore fibers
attached to each centromere
begin to shorten, pulling the
chromosome towards the
poles.
TELOPHASE (telo : end)
• The end of polar migration
starts the telophase.
• A nuclear envelope resembles
around each group of
chromosome to form two
daughter nuclei.
• Mitotic apparatus except
centrioles disappear.
• The chromosome resume their
long, slender, extended form
as their coils relax.
• RNA- synthesis restarts causing
the nucleolus to reappear.
Cytokinesis
• Usually starts very early at anaphase and
passes till interphase.
• At anaphase it starts through furrowing of
plasma membrane at the metaplate/
equatorial plane (The plane in the equatorial region of the spindle
where chromosomes align during cell division).
Animal cell Plant cell
EXERCISE
REPAIR
MEIOSIS
[Link] is
Meiosis?
[Link] it is
different from
Mitosis?
Meiosis
Meiosis is a type of cell
division that reduces the
number of chromosomes in
the parent cell by half and
produces four gamete
cells. This process is
required to produce egg
and sperm cells for sexual
reproduction. During
reproduction, when the
sperm and egg unite to
form a single cell, the
number of chromosomes is
restored in the offspring by
fertilization.
2. How it is different from Mitosis?
Stages of Meiosis
Complicated
stages of
Prophase I
Synaptonemal complex
The synaptonemal complex (SC) is
a protein structure that forms between
homologous chromosomes (two pairs of sister
chromatids) during meiosis and is thought to
mediate synapsis and recombination during
meiosis I.
The synaptonemal complex is a tripartite
structure consisting of two parallel lateral regions
and a central element.
Stages of Prophase I
Crossing over will take place
only with identical regions of
the chromosomes
Crossing over and
Recombination
Significance of Synaptonemal complex
•Pairing between the homologous chromosomes, i.e., synapsis is essential for
meiotic cell division. It takes place by the formation of the synaptonemal complex.
It stabilizes the synapsis process and ensures that each daughter cell receives half of
the number of chromosomes as their parent cells.
• Recombination is also essential for genetic variations. Crossing over is a process
in which equal and corresponding segments of non-sister chromatids in a pair of
homologous chromosomes are exchanged.
Summary
In meiosis, DNA replication is followed by two rounds of cell division to produce four daughter cells, each with half the number of
chromosomes as the original parent cell. The two meiotic divisions are known as meiosis I and meiosis II. Before meiosis begins, during
S phase of the cell cycle, the DNA of each chromosome is replicated so that it consists of two identical sister chromatids, which remain held
together through sister chromatid cohesion. This S-phase can be referred to as "premeiotic S-phase" or "meiotic S-phase". Immediately
following DNA replication, meiotic cells enter a prolonged G 2-like stage known as meiotic prophase. During this time,
homologous chromosomes pair with each other and undergo genetic recombination, a programmed process in which DNA may be cut and then
repaired, which allows them to exchange some of their genetic information. A subset of recombination events results in crossovers, which
create physical links known as chiasmata (singular: chiasma, for the Greek letter Chi (X)) between the homologous chromosomes. In most
organisms, these links can help direct each pair of homologous chromosomes to segregate away from each other during Meiosis I, resulting in
two haploid cells that have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
During meiosis II, the cohesion between sister chromatids is released and they segregate from one another, as during mitosis. In some cases, all
four of the meiotic products form gametes such as sperm, spores or pollen. In female animals, three of the four meiotic products are typically
eliminated by extrusion into polar bodies, and only one cell develops to produce an ovum. Because the number of chromosomes is halved
during meiosis, gametes can fuse (i.e. fertilization) to form a diploid zygote that contains two copies of each chromosome, one from each
parent. Thus, alternating cycles of meiosis and fertilization enable sexual reproduction, with successive generations maintaining the same
number of chromosomes. For example, diploid human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes including 1 pair of sex chromosomes (46 total),
half of maternal origin and half of paternal origin. Meiosis produces haploid gametes (ova or sperm) that contain one set of 23 chromosomes.
When two gametes (an egg and a sperm) fuse, the resulting zygote is once again diploid, with the mother and father each contributing 23
chromosomes. This same pattern, but not the same number of chromosomes, occurs in all organisms that utilize meiosis.
Meiosis occurs in all sexually-reproducing single-celled and multicellular organisms (which are all eukaryotes), including animals, plants and
fungi. It is an essential process for oogenesis and spermatogenesis.
Significance of Meiosis
MITOSIS VERSUS MEIOSIS
Cells divide and reproduce in two ways, mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis
results in two identical daughter cells, whereas meiosis results in four
sex cells. Below we highlight the keys differences and similarities
between the two types of cell division.
DIFFERENCES
Mitosis Meiosis
•Involves one cell division
•Results in two daughter cells • Involves two successive cell divisions
•Results •Results in four daughter cells
in diploid daughter cells (chromosome num •Results in haploid daughter cells
ber remains the same as parent cell) (chromosome number is halved from the
•Daughter cells are genetically identical parent cell)
•Occurs in all organisms except viruses •Daughter cells are genetically different
•Creates all body cells (somatic) apart •Occurs only in animals, plants and fungi
from the germ cells (eggs and sperm) •Creates germ cells (eggs and sperm) only
•Prophase is much shorter •Prophase I takes much longer
•No recombination/crossing over occurs in •Involves recombination/crossing over of
prophase. chromosomes in prophase I
•In metaphase individual chromosomes •In metaphase I pairs of chromosomes line
(pairs of chromatids) line up along the up along the equator.
equator. •During anaphase I the sister chromatids
•During anaphase the sister chromatids move together to the same pole.
are separated to opposite poles. •During anaphase II the sister chromatids
are separated to opposite poles.
Similarities
Meiosis
Mitosis
•Diploid parent cell
•Diploid parent cell •Consists of interphase, prophase,
•Consists of interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
metaphase, anaphase and telophase (but twice!)
•In metaphase individual chromosomes •In metaphase II individual
(pairs of chromatids) line up along the chromosomes (pairs of chromatids) line
equator. up along the equator.
•During anaphase the sister chromatids •During anaphase II the sister
are separated to opposite poles. chromatids are separated to opposite
•Ends with cytokinesis. poles.
•Ends with cytokinesis.