ARITHMETIC

Operations on rational and

real numbers
Operations on rational and real numbers

NUMBERS – APPROXIMATION AND INTEGERS

Approximation
Every figure used in a particular number has a meaning. However, on some occasions, precision is not needed and may
even hinder communication. For example, if you are calculating the cost of the journey, you need only express the
distance to the nearest mile. It is important to understand the methods of approximation used in number language.
(a) Rounding off
Suppose you are given the figure 27,836 and asked to quote it to the nearest thousand. Clearly, the figure lies between
27,000 and 28,000. The halfway point between the two is 27,500. 27,836 is more than this and so, to the nearest
thousand, the answer would be 28,000.
There are strict mathematical rules for deciding whether to round up or down to the nearest figure:
Look at the digit after the one in the last required column. Then:
• for figures of four or less, round down;
• for figures of five or more, round up.
Thus, when rounding off 236 to the nearest hundred, the digit after the one in the last required column is 3 (the last
required column being the hundreds column) and the answer would be to round down to 200. When rounding off 3,455 to
the nearest ten, the last required column is the tens column and the digit after that is 5, so we would round up to 3,460.
(b) Significant Figures
By significant figures we mean all figures other than zeros at the beginning or end of a number.
Thus:
• 632,000 has three significant figures as the zeros are not significant;
• 000,632 also has only three significant figures;
• 630,002, however, has six significant figures – the zeros here are significant as they occur in the
middle of the number.
We can round off a number to a specified number of significant figures. This is likely to be done to aid
the process of communication – i.e. to make the number language easier to understand – and is
particularly important when we consider decimals later in the unit. Consider the figure 2,017. This has
four significant figures. To write it correct to three significant figures, we need to drop the fourth figure
– i.e. the 7. We do this by using the rounding off rule – round down from 4 or round up from 5 – so
2,017 correct to three significant figures becomes 2,020. To write 2,017 correct to one significant
figure, we consider the second significant figure, the zero, and apply the rule for rounding off, giving
2,000. Do not forget to include the insignificant zeros, so that the digits keep their correct place values.
Integers
These are simply whole numbers. Thus, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc, are integers, as are all
the negative whole
numbers.
The following are not integers:
¾, 1½, 7¼, 0.45, 1.8, 20.25
By adjusting any number to the nearest whole number, we obtain an integer.
Thus, a number which is
not an integer can be approximated to become one by rounding off.
FRACTIONS
A fraction is a part of whole number.
When two or more whole numbers are multiplied together, the product is always
another whole
number. In contrast, the division of one whole number by another does not
always result in a whole
number. Consider the following two examples:
12 ÷ 5 = 2, with a remainder of 2
10 ÷ 3 = 3, with a remainder of 1
FRACTIONS
The remainder is not a whole number, but a part of a whole number – so, in each case, the result of
the
division is a whole number and a fraction of a whole number. The fraction is expressed as the
remainder divided by the original divisor and the way in which it is shown, then, is in the same form
as a division term:
12 ÷ 5 = 2, with a remainder of 2 parts of 5, or two divided by five, or 2/5
10 ÷ 3 = 3, with a remainder of 1 parts of 3, or one divided by three, or 1/5
Each part of the fraction has a specific terminology:
• the top number is the numerator; and
• the bottom number is the denominator.
Thus, for the above fractions, the numerators are 2 and 1, and the denominators are 5 and 3.
When two numbers are divided, there are three possible outcomes.
(a) The numerator is larger than the
denominator
In this case, the fraction is known as an improper fraction. The result of
dividing out an
improper fraction is a whole number plus a part of one whole, as in the two
examples above.
Taking two more examples:
42/9 = 4 whole parts and a remainder of 6 parts of 9, or 4 6/9
30/24 = 1 whole part and a remainder of 6 parts of 30, or 1 6/24
(b) The denominator is larger than the
numerator
In this case, the fraction is known as a proper fraction. The result of dividing
out a proper
fraction is only a part of one whole and, therefore, a proper fraction has a value
of less than one.
Examples of proper fractions are:

1/5 , 2/3 , 4/7 , 4/5 , etc.

(2) The numerator is the same as the
denominator
In this case, the expression is not a true fraction. The result of dividing out is
one whole part and no remainder. The answer must be 1. For example:
5/5 = 5 ÷ 5 = 1
Fractions are often thought of as being quite difficult. However, they are not
really hard as long as you learn the basic rules about how they can be
manipulated. We shall start by looking at these rules before going on to examine
their application in performing arithmetic operations on fractions.
Basic Rules for Fractions
• Cancelling down
Both the numerator and the denominator in a fraction can be any number. The following are all
valid fractions:
2/5, 20/50 , 47/93 , 6/9
The rule in expressing fractions, though, is always to reduce the fraction to the smallest
possible whole numbers for both its numerator and denominator. The resulting fraction
is
then in its lowest possible terms.
The process of reducing a fraction to its lowest possible terms is called cancelling down. To do
this, we follow another simple rule. Divide both the numerator and denominator by the largest
whole number which will divide into them exactly.
Basic Rules for Fractions
Consider the following fraction from those listed previously:
20/50
Which whole number will divide into both 20 and 50? There are several: 2, 5, 10. The rule,
though, states that we use the largest whole number, so we should use 10. Dividing both parts
of the fraction by 10 reduces it to:
2/5
Note that we have not changed the value of the fraction, just the way in which the parts of the
whole are expressed. Thus:
20/50 = 2/5
A fraction which has not been reduced to its lowest possible terms is called a vulgar fraction.
Basic Rules for Fractions
Cancelling down can be tricky process since it is not always clear what the largest whole
number to use might be. For example, consider the following fraction:
165/231
In fact, both terms can be divided by 33, but you are very unlikely to see that straight
away. However, you would probably quickly see that both are divisible by 3, so you could
start the process of cancelling down by dividing by three:
(165÷3)/(231÷3) = 55/77
This gives us a new form of the same fraction, and we can now see that both terms can be
further divided – this time by 11:
(55÷11)/(77÷11) = 5/7
So, large vulgar fractions can often be reduced in stages to their lowest possible terms.
Changing the denominator to required
number
The above process works in reverse. If we wanted to express a given fraction in a
different way, we can do that by multiplying both the numerator and denominator
by the same number. So, for example, 2/5 could be expressed as 8/20 by
multiplying both terms by 4.
If we wanted to change the denominator to a specific number – for example, to
express ½ in
eighths – the rule is to divide the required denominator by the existing denominator
(8 ÷ 2 = 4) and then multiply both terms of the original fraction by this result:
½ = (1 X 4)/(2X4) =4/8
Note, again, that we have not changed the value of the fraction, just the way in
which the parts of the whole are expressed.
Changing an improper fraction into a
whole or mixed number
Suppose we are given the following improper fraction:
35/8
The rule for converting this is to divide the numerator by the denominator and
place any
remainder over the denominator. Those we find out how many whole parts there
are and how many parts of the whole (in this case, eighths) are left over:
35/8= 35 ÷ 8 = 4 and a remainder of three = 4 3/8
This result is known as a mixed number – one comprising a whole number and a
fraction.
Changing a mixed number into an
improper fraction
This is the exact reverse of the above operation. The rule is to multiply the whole number
by
the denominator in the fraction, then add the numerator of the fraction to this product and
place the sum over the denominator.
For example, to write 3 2/3 as an improper fraction:
(a) first multiply the whole number (3) by the denominator (3) = 3 × 3 = 9, changing the
three whole ones into nine thirds;
(b) then add the numerator (2) to this = 2 + 9 = 11, thus adding the two thirds to the nine
thirds from the first operation;
(c) finally place the sum over the denominator = 11/3.
Adding and Subtracting with Fractions
(a) Proper fractions
Adding or subtracting fractions depends upon them having the same denominator. It is not
possible to do these operations if the denominators are different.
Where the denominators are the same, adding or subtracting is just a simple case of applying
the operation to numerators. For example:
3/7 + 2/7 = 5/7
5/8 − 1/8 = 4/8 = ½
Where the denominators are not the same, we need to change the form of expression so that
they become the same. This process is called finding the common denominator.
Consider the following calculation:
2/5 +3/10
Adding and Subtracting with Fractions
We cannot add these two fractions together as they stand – we have to find the
common
denominator. In this case, we can change the expression of the first fraction by
multiplying by both terms by 2, thus making its denominator 10 – the same as
the second fraction:
4/10 + 3/10 = 7/10
Not all sums are as simple as this. It is often the case that we have to change
the form of
expression of all the fractions in a sum in order to give them all the same
denominator.
Consider the following calculation:
3/5 + ¼ - 1/10
Adding and Subtracting with Fractions
The lowest common denominator for these three fractions is 20. We must then
convert all three to the new denominator by applying the rule explained above for
changing a fraction to a required denominator:
3/5 + 1/20 – 1/10 = 12/20 +5/20 – 2/20 = ¾
The rule is simple:
• find the lowest common denominator – and where this is not readily apparent, a
common denominator may be found by multiplying the denominators together;
• change all the fractions in the calculation to this common denominator;
• then add (or subtract) the numerators and place the result over the common
denominator.
(b) Mixed numbers
When adding mixed numbers, we deal with the integers and the fractions
separately. The
procedure is as follows:
• first add all the integers together;
• then add the fractions together as explained above; and then
• add together the sum of the integers and the fractions.
Consider the following calculation:
3+4 ¼+5 ½ +2 ¾ =(3+4+5+2)+(1/4+1/2+3/4)=14+6/4=14+1 ½ =15 ½
In general, the same principles are applied to subtracting mixed numbers. For
example:
4 5/6 – 1 ½ = (4 -1) +(5/6-1/2)=3+(5/6-3/6) = 3 + 2/6 = 3 1/3 .
Multiplying and Dividing Fractions
(a) Multiplying a fraction by a whole number
In this case, we simply multiply the numerator by the whole number and place the
product (which is now the new numerator) over the old denominator. For example:
2/3 × 5 = (2X5)/3 = 10/3 = 3 1/3
(b) Dividing a fraction by a whole number
In this case, we simply multiply the denominator by the whole number and place
the old
numerator over the product (which is now the new denominator). For example:
3/4÷ 5 = 3/(4X5) = 3/20
2/3 ÷ 5 = 2/(3X5) = 2/15
Multiplying and Dividing Fractions
(c) Multiplying one fraction by another
In this case, we multiply the numerators by each other and the denominators by
each other, and then reduce the result to the lowest possible terms. For
example:
¾ X 2/3 = (3X2)/(4X3) = 6/12 =1/2
3/8 X 3/5 = (3X3)/(8X5) = 9/40
(d) Dividing by a fraction
In this case, we turn the divisor upside down and multiply. For example:
4 ÷ ¾ = 4 X 4/3 = 16/3 = 5 1/3
1/6÷ 1/3 = 1/6 X 3/1 = 3/6 = 1/2
Multiplying and Dividing Fractions
e) Dealing with mixed numbers
All that we have said so far in this section applies to the multiplication and
division of proper and improper fractions. Before we can apply the same
methods to mixed numbers, we must complete one further step – convert the
mixed number to an improper fraction. For example:
5 ½ X 4/11 = 11/2 + 4/11 = 44/22 = 2
4 ¾ ÷ ½ = 19/2 X 2/1 = 38/4 = 9 ½
DECIMALS
Decimals are an alternative way of expressing a particular part of a whole. The term “decimal” means
“in relation to ten”, and decimals are effectively fractions expressed in tenths, hundredths,
thousandths, etc.
Unlike fractions, though, decimals are written completely differently, and this makes carrying out
arithmetic operations on them much easier.
Decimals do not have a numerator or a denominator. Rather, the part of the whole is shown by a
number following a decimal point:
• the first number following the decimal point represents the number of tenths, so 0.1 is one tenth
part of a whole and 0.3 is three tenths of a whole;
• the next number to the right, if there is one, represents the number of hundredths, so 0.02 is two
hundredths of a whole and 0.67 is six tenths and seven hundredths (i.e. 67 hundredths) of a whole;
• the next number to the right, again if there is one, represents the number of thousandths, so 0.005
is five thousandths of a whole and 0.134 is 134 thousandths of a whole; and so on up to as many
figures as are necessary.
DECIMALS
We can see the relationship between decimals and fractions as follows:
0.1 = 1/10, 0.3 = 3/10 , 1.6 = 1 6/10, 0.01 = 1/100 , 0.67 = 67/100, 3.81 = 3
381/100
0.001 = 1/1000 , 0.054 = 54/1000 , 5.382 = 5382/1000
We can see that any fraction with a denominator of ten, one hundred, one
thousand, ten thousand, etc. can be easily converted into a decimal. However,
fractions with a different denominator are also relatively easy to convert by
simple division.
Arithmetic with Decimals
Performing addition, subtraction, multiplication and division with decimals is exactly the same as carrying out those same operations on
whole numbers. The one key point to bear in mind is to get the position of the decimal point in the right place. Layout is all important in
achieving this.
(a) Adding and subtracting
To add or subtract decimals, arrange the numbers in columns with the decimal points all being in the same vertical line. Then you can
carry out the arithmetic in the same way as for whole numbers.
For example, add the following: 3.6 + 7.84 + 9.172
The layout for this is as follows:
3.6
7.84
9.172
Total 20.612
Similarly, subtraction is easy provided that you follow the same rule of ensuring that the decimal points are aligned vertically. For
example, subtract 18.857 from 63.7:
63.7
−18.857
Total 44.843
(b) Multiplying decimals
It is easier to use a calculator to multiply decimals, although you should ensure that you take care to get the
decimal point in the correct place when both inputting the figures and when reading the answer.
The principles of multiplying decimals manually are the same as those considered earlier in the unit for whole
numbers. However, it is important to get the decimal point in the right place.
There is a simple rule for this – the answer should have the same number of decimal places as there were in the
question.
Consider the sum 40 × 0.5. The simplest way of carrying this out is to ignore the decimal points in the first
instance, multiply the sum out as if the figures were whole numbers and then put back the decimal point in the
answer. The trick is to put the decimal point back in the right place!
So, ignoring the decimal points, we can multiply the numbers as follows:
40 × 5 = 200
Now we need to put the decimal point into the answer. To get it in the right place, we count the
number of figures after a decimal point in the original sum – there is just one, in the multiplier
(0.5) – and place the decimal point that number of places from the right in the answer:
20.0 or just 20
(b) Multiplying decimals
If the sum had been 0.4 × 0.5, what would the answer be?
The multiplication would be the same, but this time there are 2 figures after decimal points in
the original sum. So, we insert the decimal point two places to the right in the answer:
0.2
One final point to note about multiplying decimals is that, to multiply a decimal by ten, you
simply move the decimal point one place to the right. For example:
3.62 × 10 = 36.2
Likewise, to multiply by 100, you move the decimal point two places to the right:
3.62 × 100 = 362
This can be a very useful technique, enabling quick manual calculations to be done with ease.
(c) Division with decimals
Again, it is far easier to use a calculator when dividing with decimals.
However, when dividing by ten or by one hundred (or even by a thousand or a
million), we can use the technique noted above in respect of multiplication to
find the answer quickly without using a calculator:
• to divide by ten, simply move the decimal point one place to the left – for
example,
68.32 ÷ 10 = 1.832;
• to divide by one hundred, simply move the decimal point two places to the left
– for
example, 68.32 ÷ 100 = 0.6832.
(d) Converting fractions to decimals,
and vice versa
Fractions other than tenths, hundredths, thousandths, etc. can also be
converted into decimals.
It is simply a process of dividing the numerator by the denominator and
expressing the answer in decimal form. You can do this manually, but in most
instances it is easier to use a calculator.
For example, to change 3/5 into decimal form, you divide 3 by 5 (i.e. 3 ÷ 5).
Using a calculator the answer is easily found: 0.6
However, not all fractions will convert so easily into decimals in this way.
Consider the fraction 1/3
(d) Converting fractions to decimals,
and vice versa
Dividing this out (or using a calculator) gives the answer 0.3333333, or however
many 3s for which there is room on the paper or the calculator screen. This type
of decimal, where one or more numbers repeat infinitely, is known as a
recurring decimal.
In most business applications, we do not need such a degree of precision, so we
abbreviate the decimal to a certain size – as we shall discuss in the next section.
To change a decimal into a fraction, we simply place the decimal over ten or one
hundred, etc, depending upon the size of the decimal. Thus, the decimal
becomes the numerator and the denominator is 10 or 100, etc. For example:
0.36 = 36/100 = 9/25
3.736 = 3 736/1000= 3 92/125
PERCENTAGES
A percentage is a means of expressing a fractions in parts of a hundred – the words “per cent”
simply mean “per hundred”, so when we say “percentage”, we mean “out of a hundred”. The
expression “20
per cent” means 20 out of 100. The per cent sign is %, so 20 per cent is written as 20%.
• 4% means four hundredths of a whole, or four parts of a hundred = 4/100
• 28% means twenty-eight hundredths of a whole, or twenty-eight parts of a hundred = 28/100
• 100% means one hundred hundredths of a whole, or a hundred parts of a hundred =
100/100 = 1
Percentages are used extensively in many aspects of business since they are generally more
convenient and straightforward to use than fractions and decimals. It is important, therefore,
that you
are fully conversant with working with them.
Arithmetic with Percentages
Multiplication and division have no meaning when applied to percentages, so we need only be
concerned with their addition and subtraction. These are quite straightforward, but you need to
remember that we can only add or subtract percentages if they are parts of the same whole.
Take an example: If Peter spends 40% of his income on rent and 25% on household expenses, what
percentage of his income remains? Here both percentages are parts of the same whole – Peter’s
income – so we can calculate the percentage remaining as follows:
100% − (40% + 25%) = 35%
However, consider this example. If Alan eats 20% of his cake and 10% of his pie, what percentage
remains? Here the two percentages are not parts of the same whole – one refers to cake and the other
to pie. Therefore, it is not possible to add the two together.
Percentages and Fractions
Since a percentage is a part of one hundred, to change a percentage to a
fraction you simply divide it by 100. In effect all this means is that you place the
percentage over 100 and then reduce it to its lowest possible terms.
For example:
60% = 60/100= 2/5
24% = 24/100 = 6/25
Changing a fraction into a percentage is the reverse of this process – simply
multiply by 100. For example:
3/8× 100 = 300/8 % = 37½% or 37.5%
2 /3× 100 = 200/3 % = 66.67%
Percentages and Decimals
To change a percentage to a decimal, again you divide it by 100. As we saw in
the last section, this is easy – you simply move the decimal point two places to
the left. Thus:
11.5% = 0.115
Working the conversion the other way is equally easy. To change a decimal to a
percentage, move the decimal point two places to the right:
0.36% = 36%
Calculating Percentages
To find a particular percentage of a given number, change the percentage rate into a fraction or a decimal
and then multiply the given number by that fraction/decimal.
For example, to find 15% of £260:
£260 × 15/100= £3900/100 = £39
or £260 × 0.15 = £39
To express one number as a percentage of another, we convert the numbers into a fraction with the first
number as the numerator and the second the denominator, and then change the fraction into a
percentage by multiplying by 100.
For example, what percentage of cars have been sold if 27 have gone from a total stock of 300?
300
27/300 × 100 = 2700/300 = 9%
Do not forget that percentages refer to parts of the same whole and, therefore, can only be only be
calculated where the units of measurement of the quantities concerned are the same.
Calculating Percentages
For example, to show 23 pence as a percentage of £2, we need to express both quantities in the same
units before working out the percentage. This could be both as pence or both as pounds:
23/200 × 100 = 11.5% or 23.0/2 × 100 = 11.5%
There are occasions when we deal with percentages greater than 100%.
For example, if a man sells a car for £1,200 and says that he made 20% profit, how much did he buy it for?
The cost plus the profit = 120% of cost = £1,200
The cost, therefore, is 100%
To work out the cost, we need to multiply the selling price by 100/120 :
Cost = 1,200 × 100/120 = £1,000
To prove that this is correct, we work the calculation through the other way. The cost was £1,000 and
he sold it at 20% profit, so the selling price is:
£1,000 + 20% of £1,000 = £(1,000 + 0.2 × 1,000) = £1,200, as given above.
RATIOS
A ratio is a way of expressing the relationship between two quantities. It is essential that the two
quantities are of expressed in the same units of measurement – for example, pence, number of people,
etc. – or the comparison will not be valid.
For example, if we wanted to give the ratio of the width of a table to its depth where the width is 2 m
and the depth is 87 cm, we would have to convert the two quantities to the same units before giving
the ratio. Expressing both in centimetres would give the ratio of 200 to 87.
Note that the ratio itself is not in any particular unit – it just shows the relationship between quantities
of the same unit.
We use a special symbol (the colon symbol : ) in expressing ratios, so the correct form of showing the
above ratio would be:
200 : 87 (pronounced “200 to 87”)
RATIOS
There are two general rules in respect of ratios.
• They should always be reduced to their lowest possible terms (as with vulgar fractions). To do this,
express the ratio as a fraction by putting first figure over the second and cancel the resulting fraction.
Then re-express the ratio in the form of numerator : denominator.
For example, consider the ratio of girls to boys in a group of 85 girls and 17 boys. The ratio would be 85 :
17. This can be reduced as follows:
85/17 = 5/1
The ratio of 85 to 17 is, therefore, 5 : 1.
• Ratios should always be expressed in whole numbers. There should not be any fractions or decimals in
them.
Consider the ratio of average miles per gallon for cars with petrol engines to that for cars with diesel
engines where the respective figures are 33½ mpg and 47 mpg. We would not express this as 33½ : 47,
but convert the figures to whole numbers by, here, multiplying by 2 to give:
67 : 94
RATIOS
Ratios are used extensively in business to provide information about the way in which one element relates
to another. For example, a common way of analysing business performance is to compare profits with
sales. If we look at the ratio of profits to sales across two years, we may be able to see if this aspect of
business performance is improving , staying the same or deteriorating. (This will be examined elsewhere
in you studies.)
Another application is to work out quantities according to a particular ratio. For example, ratios are often
used to express the relationship between partners in a partnership – sharing profits on a basis of, say, 50 :
50 or 80 : 20.
Consider the case of three partners – Ansell, Boddington and Devenish – who share the profits of their
partnership in the ratio of 3 : 1 : 5. If the profit for a year is £18,000, how much does each partner receive?
To divide a quantity according to a given ratio:
• first add the terms of the ratio to find the total number of parts;
• then find what fraction each term of the ratio is to the whole; and
• finally divide the total quantity into parts according to the fractions.
RATIOS
For the Ansell, Boddington and Devenish partnership, this would be calculated as follows:
The profit is divided into 3 + 1 + 5 = 9 parts.
Therefore:
Ansell receives 3/9 of the profits;
Boddington receives 1/9 of the profits; and
Devenish receives 5/9 of the profits.
Therefore:
Ansell gets 3/9 × £18,000 = £6,000
Boddington gets 1/9 × £18,000 = £2,000
Devenish gets 5/9× £18,000 = £10,000
Indices
Indices are found when we multiply a number by itself one or more times. The number of times that the
multiplication is repeated is indicated by a superscript number to the right of the number being multiplied.
Thus:
2 × 2 is written as 2^ 2 (the little “2” raised up is the superscript number)
2 × 2 × 2 is written as 2 ^3
2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 is written as 2 ^7
etc.
The number being multiplied (here, 2) is termed the base and the superscript number is called the
exponent or index of its power. Thus, in the case of, say, 2^6 we refer to the term as “two raised to the
sixth power” or “two to the power of six”. (Strictly, 2^2 should be referred to as “two to the power of
two”, but we normally call it “2 squared” and, similarly, 2^3 is referred to as “2 cubed”.)
The power of a number is the result of multiplying that number a specified number of times. Thus, 8
is the third power of 2 (2 ^3 ) and 81 is the fourth power of 3 (3 ^4).
Indices
It is quite possible to have a negative exponent, as in the case of 2^−3 . A
negative exponent indicates a reciprocal. The reciprocal of any number is one
divided by that number. Thus, the reciprocal of, say, 5 is 1/5 ; and
2^−3 represents ½^3 = 1/8 = 0.125
Indices also do not have to be whole numbers – they can be fractional, as in the
case of 16 ^¼
. This indicates that the base is raised to the power quarter. It is, though, more
usual to refer to this as the fourth root of the base and to write it as follows:
4√16
Indices
The symbol √ indicates a root. A root is the number that produces a given number when
raised to a
specified power. Thus, the fourth root of 16 is 2 (2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16).
A square root of any number is the number which, when multiplied by itself, is equal to
the first
number. Thus
2 √ 9 = 3 (3 × 3 = 9)
The root index (the little 4 or little 2 in the above examples) can be any number. It is,
though,
customary to omit the “little 2” from the root sign when referring to the square root. Thus
36 refers to the square root of 36, which is 6.
Expressing Numbers in Standard Form
The exploration of indices leads us on to this very useful way of expressing numbers.
Working with very large – or very small – numbers can be difficult, and it is helpful if we can find a
different way of expressing them which will make them easier to deal with. Standard form provides
such a way.
Consider the number 93,825,000,000,000. It is a very big number and you would probably have
great
difficulty stating it, let alone multiplying it by 843,605,000,000,000.
In fact, can you even tell which is the bigger? Probably not. It is made a little easier by the two
numbers being very close to each other on the page, but if one was on a different page, it would be
very difficult indeed.
Expressing Numbers in Standard Form
However, help is at hand.
The method of expressing numbers in standard form reduces the number to a value between 1 and 10, followed by the
number of 10s you need to multiply it by in order to make it up to the correct size.
The above two numbers, under this system are: 9.3825 × 10 13 and 8.43605 × 10 14 .
The “13” and “14” after the 10 are index numbers, as discussed above. Written out in full, the first number would be:
9.3825 × (10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10).
This is not particularly useful, so an easier way of dealing with a number expressed in standard form is to remember that the
index number after the 10 tells you how many places the decimal point has to be moved to the right in order to create the
full number (remembering also to put in the 0s as well).
So, the second number from above, written out in full would be:
8 . 4 3 6 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 843,605,000,000,000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Converting numbers in this way makes arithmetic operations much easier – something which we shall return to later in your
studies – and also allows us to compare numbers at a glance. Thus, we can see immediately that 8.43605 × 10^ 14 is larger
than 9.3825 × 10^ 13
.
Factorials
A factorial is the product of all the whole numbers from a given number down to
one.
For example, 4 factorial is written as 4! (and is often read as “four bang”) and is
equal to
4 × 3 × 2 × 1.
You may encounter factorials in certain types of statistical operations.