Chapter Three: Geochemical structure of

the Earth
3.1. Structure of the Earth
3.2. Geochemical structure and composition of
the crust, mantle and core
3.3. Geochemical classification of elements:
major, minor, trace and REE
3.4. Distribution of elements
3.4.1. Geochemical rule for the distribution of
elements.

1
 Structure of the Earth
 Early Earth was composed of, Fe, O 2, Si, Mg, S, Ca,
Ni, Al, and smaller amounts of other chemical
elements.
 When the Earth under went heating, this homogeneous composition
disappeared, the result was differentiated planet, consisting of
concentric layers of differing composition and density.
 Differentiation also responsible for the emission of
gasses from the interior of the Earth that eventually led
to formation of the oceans and the atmosphere.
 The Earth’s atmosphere and hydrosphere are developed from degassing
(loss of gaseous elements such as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen).
 At present abundant gases are released during volcanic
eruptions and these are mainly composed of water
(77%), CO2 (12%), SO2 (7%), and N2 (3%) with minor
amounts of H2, CO, S, Cl, and Ar.
Geochemical composition of the Earth
• Earth, being a dynamic system, it is
continuously undergoing change in
– Mechanical (plate tectonic --strength, elasticity, and,
viscosity)
– Chemical properties
• This properties do depend on
– Pressure
– Temperature
– State of stress
– Nature of the chemistry of the material.
Chemical composition and mechanical
properties vary widely within the Earth.
 Division of the Earth

• The Earth can be divided into two

main parts:
1) Atmosphere: measured from the
surface of the Earth upwards to 150 km
(any thing above this called space).
2) Solid Earth: measured from the
surface of the Earth down wards to the
core.
 1) Atmosphere
• Atmosphere
– contains mainly N2 and O2 (99 % of the total) as
gases
• N2 78.1%; O2 20.9%; Ar 0.9%; CO2, methane, rare
(inert) gases-0.1 %).
– is divided (measured from the surface of the Earth)
into:
• Troposphere (0-20 km)
• Stratosphere (20-50 km)
• Mesosphere (50-85 km)
• Thermosphere (85-650 km)
– Exosphere (650-10,000km)
 2) The solid Earth
• Divided into
– A) Biosphere ( Organic substances, and
skeletal matter)
– B) Hydrosphere (fresh and salt water, snow,
and ice)-includes all forms of water
– C) Lithosphere (includes different types of
rocks both surface and subsurface)
Internal structure and composition of the solid Earth
• There are several indirect evidences that can used to infer
the internal structure and composition of our planet. The
most important are:
– 1. Xenoliths is enclosed in volcanic rock notably basalt
and kimberlites.

– 2. Meteorites.
– 3. Geophysical method ( seismic data)
• is studied with the help of seismic waves, their movement
through the Earth.
• Seismology
– is the study of the origin and propagation of
elastic waves through planetary bodies.
– was originally regarded as the study of the
earthquakes.
• The subdivisions in the Earth’s interior are marked by sharp
• Two types of seismic waves
1) Primary (P) or compressional waves
• Fastest wave
• Have velocities-5 km/s at the top of the
crust, 8 km/s at the top of the mantle,
and 14 km/s at the bottom of the mantle
• Can travel through solids and liquids (so
they can travel through the Earth’s core
(the outer core is liquid)
2) Shear (S) or transverse waves
• Have slower speed than P-waves
• Can only travel through solids (so they do
not travel the earth’s core)
 Mechanical Subdivisions
• The Earth has been divided into four different
spheres on the basis of the physical properties
of the layers.
Lithosphere, Asthenosphere, Mesosphere and
Sidrosphere.
A) Lithosphere
• The outer part of the solid Earth, containing the
crust and the upper most part of the mantle
• Extends 100 km from the surface
• It is the mechanically hard, cool, brittle,
outermost layer of the Earth.
• Very important zone from the point of view of
earthquakes and plate movements
 B) Asthenosphere
• Is the upper, plastic portion of the mantle.
• 100 km in thickness, with its upper surface at a
depth of 60 km beneath the oceans and 120 km
beneath the continents.

• It is a layer where pressure and temperature

combine to keep the rock close to melting, therefor
the partial melting takes place, generating magma
that migrates toward the Earth’s surface.

 The temperature and pressure are just the right

balance in order to melt material because the rocks
lose much of their strength and become soft
plastic .
 C) Mesosphere
• A layer below the Asthenosphere,
approximately from 200 to 2,900 km
– The upper mesosphere (400 to 670 km) is
more rigid than the overlying
Asthenosphere.
• Two prominent seismic discontinuities
occur in the upper mesosphere, at 400
km and at 670 km.
• The lower mesosphere, from 670 to 2,900 km.
• The absence of earthquakes suggests
that the lower mesosphere is more
plastic than the upper mesosphere or the
lithosphere.
 D) Siderosphere
• The innermost layer of the Earth extending
from the bottom of the lower mesosphere to
the centre of the Earth (i.e. to a depth of
about 6,371 km).
• The siderosphere can be divided into two
distinct zones based on physical
characteristics.
1) outer core
2) inner core
• Because no S waves transmitted through the
outer core, the outer core must be liquid.
• The inner core is solid because of the
dominant effect of pressure over
temperature.
 Chemical subdivision of the
solid Earth
• The Earth consists of three concentric
layers:
– Core, mantle, and crust
• This orderly divisions results from
density differences between the layers
as a function of variations in
– compositions,
– temperature,
– pressure.
 A) Crust
• is much thinner under oceans than under
continents.
• makes up only 0.5% of the Earth’s total
mass.
• can be divided into two main parts,
– continental
– oceanic.
• Both differ in thickness, density, and
compositions.
 1) Continental crust
• Averages 35 km in thickness, but it ranges
up to 60 km under mountain ranges and
up to 70-80 km in regions of crustal
duplication (Tibet, Himalayas)
• It has average density of 2.7 g/cm3
• Commonly referred to sialic (meaning that
contains considerable Si and Al).
• The oldest rocks preserved on the planet
are found on continents (except
meteorites, which are often older)
 2) Oceanic crust
• It is thin (5-10 km; it is only 7 km thick in the deep
ocean basins)
• Denser than continental crust (3.0 g/cm3)
• Commonly referred to Sima (meaning that contains
considerable Si and Mg).
• Produced wherever hot mantle materials comes
into contact the surface of solid earth (produced at
spreading centers).
• Sea water circulates into the cooling oceanic crust
to depths of 3 km, driven by the heat of the
magma intrusion.
• Oceanic crust can be divided into:
a) Ocean basins: water depth exceeds 4 km,
layered and very uniform)
b) Mid-ocean ridges: in mid-ocean ridges
(such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge),
c) Island arcs: the structure beneath island
arcs (such as the Indonesian Arc) is very
complex and the composition of the crust is
these region is very heterogeneous.
– The most rock types are in surface
exposures are volcanic andesites (from
explosive volcanoes) and deep-sea
sediments.
 B) Mantle
• is a thick layer between the Earth’s crust and core.
• comprises about 83% of the Earth’s volume
• extends from 70 or 35 km to 2,900 km of depth.
• is less dense than the core (3.3-5.7 g/cm3)
• is thought to be composed largely of iron-rich silicate
minerals.
• subdivided into
1. upper mantle: Upper mantle material that has come up onto the
surface comprises about 55% olivine, 35% pyroxene, and 5
to 10% of calcium oxide and aluminum oxide minerals ...
2. transition zone :
3. lower mantle
 1) Upper Mantle
• is measured from the base of the crust down to
400 km.
• accounts for 10 % of the Earth's total mass
• density 3.25-3.40 gm/cm3
• composition:
– The most common minerals(e.g. olivine + pyroxene)
(< 30 km depth),
• in tectonically active regions, eclogite (amphibole
+ garnet + Cpx) is a major component.
• composed of two main zones:
– an upper peridotite zone and an underlying primitive
mantle
 2) Transition Zone
• 410- 670 km below the Earth's surface.
• 17% of the Earth's total mass.
• the top of the transition zone is marked by phase
transformation
– olivine to a proto-spinel
– pyroxene to a garnet-structure
 There are a number of irregular seismic velocity
changes
– 670 km which is marked by the breakdown of
olivine into its constituent oxide components of
periclase (MgO) and stishovite (SiO2).
– Mg-Fe-Ca-Al silicates; source of most basaltic
magma.
 3) Lower Mantle
• 670 - 2900 km below the Earth's surface.
• 41% of the Earth's total mass.
• most likely consists of mixed oxides of
pyrolusite composition but with increased
iron content.
In composition Mg-silicates, with major Fe,
minor Ca and Al. Mostly common mineral called
perovskite (CaTiO3)
 C) Core
• is believed to be composed primarily of a nickel-iron
alloy (along with abundant platinum-group elements).
• is divided into two types –
1. liquid outer core (2900 - 5000 km)
2. solid inner core (5000 - 6370 km)
• has density of 10 to 13 g/cm3
• occupies about 16% of the total volume and 32.5%
mass of the earth
• is believed to have a chemical composition similar to
that of iron meteorites (Fe- 90.6%; Ni- 7.9%; Co- 0.5%
etc)
• There is a sharp but not very smooth boundary
between mantle and core known as Gutenberg
 Classification of elements
A) Abundances
1) Major elements: chemical element whose
concentration usually greater than 1%.
• Examples: SiO2, TiO2 , Al2O3,, FeO, MgO, MnO,
CaO, Na2O, K2O, and P2O5
• 2) Minor elements: chemical element whose
concentration usually 0.1 - 1%.
• Examples: TiO2 , MnO, P2O5
3) Trace elements: chemical element whose
concentration usually < 0.1%.
• Examples: Ni, Co, Cr, Sc, V, Cu, Ba, Ta, Rb, Sr, Cs, Tl,
Hf, Zr, U, Th, REE (rare earth elements (La, Ce, Pr,
Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, and Lu)
 B) Host
 The phasesclassification,
Goldschmidt developed by
Victor Goldschmidt, is a geochemical classification
which groups the chemical elements according to
their preferred host phases into:
1) lithophile (rock-loving): elements with an
affinity for silicate phases, concentrated in the
Earth’s mantle and crust
2) siderophile (iron-loving): elements with an
affinity for a liquid metalic phase (usually iron)
3) chalcophile (sulphur-loving): elements with an
affinity for a liquid sulphide phase.
4) atmophile (gas-loving): elements that are
extremely volatile and concentrated in the Earth’s
 What makes an element siderophile or
lithophile? Notably, the Goldschmidt
categories are well-grouped in the periodic
table of the elements:
IA IIA Atmophile Siderophile IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA
1 2
1 H Lithophile Artificial He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be Chalcophile B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109
7 Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanides La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinides Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
 C) Partitioning/mantle melt

1) Compatible elements: elements that do

easily fit into the crystal structure of
mantle minerals.
– Examples: Ni, Cr, Co, V, Sc, Os, 𝐸𝑢2+
2) Incompatible elements: elements
that do not easily fit into the crystal
structure of mantle melt.
– Examples: K, Rb, Sr, Ba, REE, Ta, Hf, U,
Pb,etc
 Geochemical evolution of the Earth and
Geochemical Cycle
 The geochemical evolution of Earth is the
result of continuous, long-term geochemical
cycles that redistribute elements among the
Earth's atmosphere, hydrosphere,
biosphere, and lithosphere.
 These cycles are driven by geological
processes like volcanism, weathering,
subduction, and the creation and recycling
of crustal rock.
 Extraction of magma from the mantle
progressively displaces elements from the
mantle into the crust.
• Crustal rocks consist of lower-melting mineral
assemblages and are enriched in the
 cont..
 Most mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB), for
example, come from mantle domains depleted
in the incompatible elements.

Average continental crust has SiO2

content approaching 60%, much
higher than oceanic crust.
It has been previously stated that
the earth has been formed by
aggregation of planetesimals.
 cont..
The heterogeneous composition of the earth is the
result of the complex evolutionary history undergone
by our planet.
– Successively, strong heating produced
extensive melting and the various phases (i.e.
silicate melts, silicate minerals, metallic melt)
separated from each other according to their
relative densities
 The heavier components, essentially Fe and Ni,
dropped toward the center of the planet to form the
core.
 Mg- and Fe-silicates formed the intermediate
(mantle) layer.
 The light silicate melts migrated toward the
external part of the planet to form a crust.
cont.
 It may be noted that, during this and the
successive phases of earth evolution, the
distribution of elements in the different layers
was not controlled only by elemental densities or
atomic weight, but by their affinity for the major
phases that separated to form various layers .
– This affinity depends on the electronic configuration of
the elements, hence the chemical bonding
characteristics of the atoms.
 For example, uranium and thorium, which are heavy
elements, did not partition into the core, but in the crust.
– This depends on the fact that these two elements form oxides
and silicates that have low density and accordingly concentrated
toward the surface of the earth.
 Instead, other elements such as gold and platinum
have no tendency to form oxides and silicates and
because of their high density most probably
 cont..
Evolutionary processes are not restricted to the
early history of the earth, but continued all through
the geological times and are still presently active.

– Differentiation inside the earth has been

dominated by continuous degassing with
escape of fluid phases into the
atmosphere, convecting, stirring and
melting of the mantle with formation of
basaltic magmas, introduction of crust
into the mantle along subduction zones

• These melts and fluids have the effect of

transferring chemical elements from the deep to
the upper mantle.
 cont..
• Cooling of the melts, especially in the lithospheric
mantle, and reactions between migrating fluids and
indigenous rocks produce important chemical changes
within the uppermost mantle that becomes veined and
heterogeneous.
• This process of continuous addition of material to the upper
mantle is known as mantle metasomatism and is a main
evolutionary mechanism working inside the earth.
 Subduction processes are able to bring water back
into the mantle.
 After long time, water is incorporated into magmas
and brought again to the surface by volcanic activity.
 In general terms, the whole process of
migration of elements from one natural system
to the other, sometimes with their return to
the initial one, is known as geochemical cycle.
Geochemical cycle Plate tectonics