STRAIN GAGES

INTRODUCTION

Stress: When a force is applied to an object, it experiences stress.

Stress is the internal resistance within a material due to the applied
force. It’s typically measured in units of force per unit area (such as
N/m² or Pascals).
Strain: Strain is the deformation or elongation experienced by a
material when subjected to stress. It’s expressed as a ratio of the
change in length to the original length.
STRESS & STRAIN

• Stress:
• Stress is the internal force
generated within an object in
response to an applied external
force.
• Imagine a column receiving an
external force from the top. To
maintain its original shape, the
column generates an internal
repelling force.
STRESS & STRAIN

• This internal force, divided by the cross-sectional area of the column

(denoted as (A)), gives us stress.
• Stress is expressed in units of Pascals (Pa) or N/m².

σa=
STRESS & STRAIN

Strain
In the axial direction (the direction of the applied force), axial strain ɛ a
is defined as, ɛa=
The dimensions of strain are unity – strain is a no dimensional
quantity.
• strain value is expressed by suffixing “ (parts per million) strain,”
“µm/m” or “µε.”
STRESS & STRAIN

Longitudinal Strain
When strain occurs in the same direction as the applied force (tensile
or compressive), it’s called longitudinal strain.
Strain is an absolute value without units.

Typically, strain values are expressed as “x10⁻⁶ strain,” “µm/m,” or

“µε.”
STRESS & STRAIN

The pulled bar becomes thinner while lengthening. Suppose that the
original diameter, d0, is made thinner by ∆d. Then, the strain in the
diametrical direction is:

ε2 =
STRESS & STRAIN

Strain in the orthogonal direction to the external force is called lateral

strain. Each material has a certain ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal
strain, with most materials showing a value around 0.3. This ratio is
called Poisson’s ratio, which is expressed in ν (nu):
STRESS & STRAIN

With various materials, the relation

between strain and stress has
already been obtained experimen
tally.
a typical relation between stress
and strain on common steel (mild
steel). The region where stress and
strain have a linear relation is
called the proportional limit, which
satisfies the Hooke’s law.
STRESS & STRAIN

The proportional constant, E, between stress and strain in the equation

above is called the modulus of longitudinal elasticity or Young’s modulus,
the value of which depends on the materials.
As described above, stress can be known through measurement of the
strain initiated by external force, even though it cannot be measured
directly.
Magnitude of Strain

How minute is the magnitude of strain? To under

stand this, let’s calculate the strain initiated in an
iron bar of 1 square cm (1 x 10–4m2) which
vertically receives an external force of 10kN
(approx. 1020kgf) from the top. First, the stress
produced by the strain is:
Magnitude of Strain

Since strain is usually expressed in parts per million,

The strain quantity is expressed as 485µm/m, 485µε or 485 x10–6 strain.

Magnitude of Strain
Polarity of Strain

Polarity of Strain There exist tensile strain (elongation) and compres sive
strain (contraction). To distinguish between them, a sign is prefixed as
follows:
 Plus (+) to tensile strain (elongation)

 Minus (–) to compressive strain (contraction)

Structure of Strain Gages

There are many types of strain gages. Among them, a universal strain
gage has a structure such that a grid-shaped sensing element of thin
metallic resistive foil (3 to 6µm thick) is put on a base of thin plastic film
(15 to 16µm thick) and is laminated with a thin film.
Principle of Strain Gages

A strain gauge is tightly bonded to a measuring object, allowing its

metallic resistive foil sensing element to elongate or contract in response
to strain. As the material experiences mechanical deformation, its electric
resistance changes. Strain gauges leverage this principle for strain
measurement.
Typically, the sensing element is made of a copper-nickel alloy foil, and
its resistance change is directly proportional to strain, governed by a
constant factor.
Principle of Strain Gages

= K.ε
where,
R: Original resistance of strain gage, Ω (ohm)
∆R: Elongation- or contraction-initiated resistance change, Ω (ohm)
K: Proportional constant (called gage factor)
ε: Strain
Principle of Strain Gages

The gage factor, K, differs depending on the metallic materials. The

copper-nickel alloy (Advance) provides a gage factor around 2. Thus, a
strain gage using this alloy for the sensing element enables conversion of
mechanical strain to a corresponding electrical resistance change.
However, since strain is an invisible infinitesimal phenomenon, the
resistance change caused by strain is extremely small.
For example, let’s calculate the resistance change on a strain gage caused
by 1000 x10–6 strain. Generally, the resistance of a strain gage is120Ω,
and thus the following equation is established:
Principle of Strain Gages

= 2 x 1000 x

∆R = 120 x 2 x 1000 x10–6 = 0.24Ω

The rate of resistance change is:

== 0.002 = 0.2%
Wheatstone Bridge

The Wheatstone bridge is an electric circuit

suit able for detection of minute resistance
changes. It is therefore used to measure
resistance changes of a strain gage.
 R1 = R2 = R3 = R4, or

 R1 x R3 = R2 x R4
Wheatstone Bridge

whatever voltage is applied to the input, the output, e, is zero. Such a

bridge status is called “balanced.” When the bridge loses the balance, it
outputs a voltage corresponding to the resistance change.
Wheatstone Bridge

strain gage is connected in place of R1 in the circuit. When the gage bears
strain and initiates a resistance change, ∆R, the bridge outputs a
corresponding voltage, e.
e=
e=Kε E
Since values other than ε are known values, strain, ε, can be determined
by measuring the bridge out put voltage
Bridge Structures

The structure described above is called a

1-gage system since only one gage is
connected to the bridge. Besides the 1-
gage system, there are 2 gage and 4-gage
systems.
2-gage system
With the 2-gage system, gages are
connected to the bridge in either of two
ways.
Bridge Structures

Output voltage of 4-gage system

The 4-gage system has four gages connected one each to all four sides of
the bridge. While this sys tem is rarely used for strain measurement, it is
frequently applied to strain-gage transducers. When the gages at the four
sides have their resist ance changed to R1 + ∆R1, R2 + ∆R2, R3 + ∆R3 and
R4 + ∆R4, respectively, the bridge output voltage, e, is:
e =)E
Bridge Structures

If the gages at the four sides are equal in specifica tions including the
gage factor, K, and receive strains, ε1, ε2, ε3 and ε4, respectively, the equa
tion above will be:
e = K (ε1 – ε2 + ε3 – ε4) E

Output voltage of 1-gage system

Bridge Structures

Output voltage of 1-gage system

 Output voltage of 1-gage system R2 R3 E e In the cited equation for the 4-
gage system, the 1 gage system undergoes resistance change, R1, at one
side only. Thus, the output voltage is:
Bridge Structures

Output voltage of 2-gage system

Bridge Structures

Applications of 2-gage system

 The 2-gage system is mostly used for the following case. To separately
know either the bending or tensile strain an external force applies to a
cantilever, one gage is bonded to the same position at both the top and
bottom
 These two gages are connected to adjacent or op posite sides of the bridge,
and the bending or ten sile strain can be measured separately.
Bridge Structures

 That is, gage 1 senses the tensile (plus)

strain and gage 2 senses the compressive
(minus) strain. The absolute strain value
is the same irrespective of polarities, pro
vided that the two gages are at the same
distance from the end of the cantilever.
 To measure the bending strain only by
offsetting the tensile strain, gage 2 is
connected to the adjacent side of the
bridge. Then, the output, e, of the bridge
is:
Bridge Structures

 e = . K (ε1 – ε2).E
 Since tensile strains on gages 1 and 2 are plus and the same in magnitude,
(ε1 – ε2) in the equa tion is 0, thereby making the output, e, zero. On the
other hand, the bending strain on gage 1 is plus and that on gage 2 is
minus. Thus, ε2 is added to ε1, thereby doubling the output.
Bridge Structures

 If gage 2 is connected to the

opposite side, the output, e, of
the bridge is:
 e = . K (ε1 + ε2).E
 contrary to the above, the
bridge output is zero for the
bending strain while doubled
for the tensile strain
Strain Gage Bonding Procedure

The strain-gage bonding method differs depending on the type of the

strain gage, the applied adhesive and operating environment.
 (1) Select strain gage. (2) Remove dust and paint. (3) Decide bonding position.

Select the strain gage model and

Using a sand cloth (#200 to
gage length which meet the Using a #2 pencil or a marking-off
300), polish the strain-gage
reqirements of the measuring object pin, mark the measuring site in the
bonding site over a wider area
and purpose. For the linear strain direction. When using a
than the strain-gage size. Wipe
expansion coefficient of the gage marking off pin, take care not to
off paint, rust and plating, if any,
applicable to the measuring object, deeply scratch the strain-gage
with a grinder or sand blast
refer to page 13. Select the most bonding surface.
before polishing.
suitable one from the 11 choices.
(4) Remove grease from (6) Bond strain gage to
(5) Apply adhesive.
bonding surface and clean. measuring site.

Ascertain the back and front

Using an industrial tissue paper of the strain gage. Apply a After applying a drop of the
(SILBON paper) dipped in acetone, clean drop of CC 33A adhesive to adhesive, put the strain gage on
the strain-gage bonding site. Strongly the back of the strain gage. Do the measuring site while lining up
wipe the surface in a single direction to not spread the adhesive. If the center marks with the marking
collect dust and then remove by wiping spreading occurs, curing is off lines.
in the same direction. Reciprocal wiping adversely accelerated, thereby
causes dust to move back and forth and lowering the adhesive
does not ensure cleaning. strength.
 (7) Press strain gage. (8) Complete bonding work.

Cover the strain gage with the accessory After pressing the strain gage with a
polyethylene sheet and press it over the thumb for one minute or so, remove the
sheet with a thumb. Quickly perform polyethylene sheet and make sure the
steps (5) to (7) as a series of actions. strain gage is securely bonded. The above
Once the strain gage is placed on the steps complete the bonding work.
bonding site, do not lift it to adjust the However, good measurement results are
position. The adhesive strength will be available after 60 minutes of complete
curing of the adhesive.
extremely lowered.