MODULE - V

Introduction to Mechanical Measurement –

significance of mechanical measurement;
Fundamental methods of measurement ;
Classification of measuring instrument.
Stages in generalized measuring system – Sensor-
Transducer stage, Signal-Conditioning stage,
Readout-Recording stage; Types of input quantities;
Active and Passive transducers.
Performance characteristic of measuring devices –
Static characteristics – Accuracy, Precision,
Repeatability, Sensitivity, Reproducibility, Drift,
Resolution, Threshold, Hysteresis, Static calibration.
Dynamic characteristics- different order systems and
their response-, Measuring lag, Fidelity, Dynamic
error; Types of errors in measurement.
Transducers – Working, Classification of transducers.
Motion and Dimension measurement – LVDT –
Principle, applications, advantages and limitations.
 Introduction to Mechanical
Measurement
• Whatever exist, exists in some amount
• The determination of this amount is called
“measurement”
• If those that exists are related to mechanical
engineering, then the determination of their amounts
constitutes the subject of mechanical measurements
• The act of measurement consists of obtaining a
quantitative comparison between the predefined
standard and a measurand
• The metre is clearly defines as the standard of
length
• The act of measurement consists of obtaining a
quantitative comparison between the predefined
standard and a measurand
• The meter is clearly defines as the standard of
length
• Mass length time temperature s on are the
fundamental quantities
• Also consider electrical because it is often
convenient to change or transduce a mechanical
measurand into electrical quantities
• The Measurement of a given quantity is essentially
an act or result of comparison between a quantity
whose magnitude (amount) is unknown, with a
similar quantity whose magnitude (amount) is
known, the latter quantity being called a Standard.

• Since the two quantities, the amount of which is

unknown and another quantity whose amount is
known are compared, the result is expressed in
terms of a numerical value.
Fundamental Measuring
Process
 Significance of mechanical
measurement
• Measurement provides a comparison between what
was intended and what was achieved
• Having incorrect information is potentially more
damaging than having no information
• There raises the question of accuracy or
uncertainty of the measurement
• Measurement is the fundamental basis for all the
research, design, and development
• its role is prominent in many engineering activities
 The three important reasons for making
measurements are:
(1) generate data for design,
(2) generate data to validate or propose a theory and
(3) for commerce.
 Fundamental Methods of
Measurement
• Direct Comparison With Either A Primary Or
Secondary Standard
• To measure the length of a steel bar we use a
steel tape
• That is we are comparing the length of the bar
with the standard
• Thus the length of the bar is determined by a
direct comparison
• The standard is called secondary standard
• The primary standard is related the speed of
light specified wavelength from krypton 86
• Indirect comparison through the use of calibrated
system
• Measurements by direct methods are not always
possible, feasible and, practicable.
• Make use of some form of transducing device
coupled into a chain of connecting apparatus
• This chain of devices converts the basic form of
input into the analogous form
• Such conversion is necessary because we get the
accurate output
• Processing of analogue may take many forms such
as filtering, remote recording, electrical methods
etc
• Majority of transducers in use convert the
mechanical input to analogous electrical form of
processing
 Classification of Measuring Instrument.
1. Deflection and null type instruments.
Deflection type
Null type
• Consider a simple situation of measuring the mass of
an object by means of an equal-arm beam balance.

• An unknown mass, when placed in the pan, causes

the beam and pointer to deflect.

• Masses of known values are placed on the other pan

till a balanced or null condition is obtained by means
of the pointer.
• The main advantage of the null-type devices is
that they do not interfere with the state of the
measured quantity

• thus measurements of such instruments are

extremely accurate
 Active and passive type
instruments
• Active Instruments
The instrument type in which quantity to be
measured modulates or adapts to magnitude of
external power source is known as active
instrument.

Example: Petrol Tank Level Indicator

 Passive Instrument
• The instrument type in which output entirely depends
on quantity to be measured.

• Example: Pressure measuring device

The pressure of the fluid is translated into a movement

of a pointer against scale.
The energy expanded in moving the pointer is derived
entirely from the change in pressure measured. In this
passive instrument, there are no other energy inputs to
the system.
 Analog and digital instruments.
• Analogue
• The instrument which gives output that varies
continuously as quantity to be measured is known
as analog instrument.

• EXAMPLE of analog instruments:

• Deflection type pressure gauge.
• Thermocouple which gives analog signal as
output.
• Analog Multimeter
 Digital Type
• The instrument which gives output that varies
in discrete steps and only has finite number of
values is known as digital instrument.

• EXAMPLE of analog instruments:

• Revolution Counter: rotating shaft of it
produces a digital signal.
• Digital Multimeter
 Contacting and non- contacting
instruments
• A contacting type of instrument is one that is
kept in the measuring medium itself.
• A clinical thermometer is an example of such
instruments.
• On the other hand, there are instruments that are
of non-contacting or proximity type.
• These instruments measure the desired input
even though they are not in close contact with
the measuring medium
• For example, an optical pyrometer monitors
the temperature of, say, a blast furnace, but is
kept out of contact with the blast furnace.

• Similarly, a variable reluctance tachometer,

which measures the rpm of a rotating body, is
also a proximity type of instrument.
Manually Operated and Automatic
Types
• Any instrument which requires the services of
human operator is a manual type of instrument.
• The instrument becomes automatic if the manual
operation is replaced by an auxiliary device
incorporated in the instrument.
• An automatic instrument is usually preferred
because the dynamic response of such an instrument
is fast and also its operational cost is considerably
lower than that of the corresponding manually
operated instrument.
 Self generating and power
operated
• Self-generated instruments are the output is
supplied entirely by the input signal.

• The instrument does not require any out side power

in performing its function

• Example: mercury in glass thermometer, bourdon

pressure gauge, pitot tube for measuring velocity
• Instruments require same auxillary source of power
such as compound air, electricity, hydraulic supply
for these operations and hence are called externally
powered instruments (or) passive instruments.
• Example:

• L.V.D.T(Linear Variable Differential Transducer)

• Resistance thermometer
• Self contained remote indicator.
 Dumb and Intelligent Types
• A dumb or conventional instrument is that in
which the input variable is measured and
displayed, but the data is processed by the
observer. For example, a Bourdon pressure
gauge is termed as a dumb instrument because
though it can measure and display a car tyre
pressure but the observer has to judge whether
the car tyre air inflation pressure is sufficient
or not.
• Currently, the advent of microprocessors has provided
the means of incorporating Artificial Intelligence (AI)
to a very large number of instruments. Intelligent or
smart instruments process the data in conjunction with
microprocessor (µP ) or an on-line digital computer to
provide assistance in noise reduction, automatic
calibration, drift correction, gain adjustments, etc. In
addition, they are quite often equipped with diagnostic
subroutines with suitable alarm generation in case of
any type of malfunctioning.
 Stages in Generalized Measuring
System
• Stage 1 :Sensor-Transducer Stage
• Stage 2 : Signal Conditioning stage
• Stage 3: Read-out recording stage

• Sensor-Transducer stage
• The quantity under measurement makes its first
contact with the primary sensing element of a
measurement system.
• i.e., the measurand- (the unknown quantity which
is to be measured) is first detected by primary
sensor which gives the output in a different
analogous form
• This output is then converted into an electrical
signal by a transducer - (which converts energy
from one form to another).
• The first stage of a measurement system is known
as a detector
• Signal Conditioning stage
• Variable Conversion Element - The output of the
primary sensing element is in the electrical form
suitable for control, recording and display. For the
instrument to perform the desired function, it may
be necessary to convert this output to some other
suitable for preserving the original information. This
function is performed by the variable conversion
element. A system may require one or more variable
conversion suitable to it.
• Variable Manipulation Element - The signal
gets manipulated here preserving the original
nature of it. For example, an amplifier accepts
a small voltage signal as input and produces a
voltage, of greater magnitude. The output is
the same voltage but of higher value, acting as
a voltage amplifier. Here the voltage amplifier
acts as a variable manipulation element since it
amplifies the voltage.
• The element that follows the primary sensing
element in a measurement system is called signal
conditioning element. Here the variable conversion
element and variable manipulation element are
collectively called as Data Conditioning Element or
Signal Conditioning Element.
• Data Transmission Element - The transmission
of data from one another is done by the data
transmission element. In case of spacecraft, the
control signals are sent from the control stations by
using radio signals.
• The stage that follows the signal conditioning
element and data transmission element collectively
is called the intermediate stage.
• Read or Recording stage
• The display or readout devices which display the
required information about the measurement, forms
the data presentation element. Here the information
of the measured has to be conveyed for, monitoring,
control or analysis purposes. In case of data to be
monitored, visual display devices are needed like
ammeters and voltmeters. In case of data to be
recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes, T.V
equipment, and storage type CRT, printers, and so
on are used.
Basic components in a measurement
system

Amplification and Conditioning

• For example simple tire gauge used to measure
the automobile tire pressure
• First stage: Sensing and transducing
• Pressure of Air is converted into Force
• Second stage :Signal conditioning
• The spring convert the force to a displacement
• Third stage : Readout-Recording stage
• The output is conditioned to scale and index for
read out
 Active and Passive transducers
• Transducers transforms energy from one form to
another
• Usually it coverts the non electrical physical
quantity into an electrical signal
• The transducers are classified into active and
passive when considering the power
 Active Transducer
• The transducer whose output is obtained in the form
of voltage or current without any additional auxiliary
source is known as the active transducer.

• It works on the principle of conversion of energy

from one form to another.

• The active transducer is also known as the self-

generating transducer because they self-develop their
electrical output signal.
• The energy requires for generating the output
signals are obtained from the physical quantity
which is to be measured.
• Example: The Piezo electrical crystal is the example of
the natural active transducer.
• The crystal has the property of producing the output
voltage when the external force applied to them.
• The piezoelectric crystal is placed between the two
metallic electrodes. When the force applied to the
crystal, the voltage induces across it.
 Passive Transducer

• In passive transducer, the output is obtained by

changing the physical properties (resistance,
inductance, and capacitance) of the material.
• In other words, the passive transducer takes
power from the external energy source for
transduction.
• The word transduction means conversion of
energy from one form to another.
• Example: The linear potentiometer is the
examples of the passive transducer. It is used for
measuring the displacement. The POT requires the
external power source ei for work. It measures the
linear displacement xi.
 Types of input quantities
Time dependence: mechanical quantities in addition
to there inherent characteristics, also have time
amplitude properties.
[Link]- constant in time
[Link]-varying in time
(a)steady state periodic
(b)Non repetitive or transient
(i) single pulse or aperiodic
(ii) continuing or random
• Two general forms of dynamic inputs are possible
[Link] state periodic input
• Whose magnitude has a definite repeating time
cycle
• Eg: Sixty cycle line voltage (sixty cycles per
second)
2. Non repetitive or Transient
• The time variation of the transient quantity does not
vary
• The example of transient quantity is the
acceleration time relationship accompanying an
isolated mechanical part
 ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL SIGNALS

The fundamental difference between analog and

digital signal is that analog signal is represented by
the sine waves whereas, the digital signal is
represented by square waves.
 Performance characteristics of
measuring devices
• Static characteristics
• Dynamic characteristics
Static characteristics
• Static characteristics refer to the characteristics
of the system when the input is either held
constant or varying very slowly. The items that
can be classified under the heading static
characteristics are mainly
•Repeatability and Reproducibility (R & R) Studies
evaluate the precision of a measurement system. It is
important that the instrument properly calibrated before
starting R & R study
•Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings
when the same input is applied repetitively over a short
period of time, with the same measurement conditions,
same instrument and observer, same location, and same
conditions of use maintained throughout
• Reproducibility describes the closeness of output
readings for the same input when there are changes
in the method of measurement, observer, measuring
instrument, location, conditions of use, and time of
measurement
 SENSITIVITY
• Sensitivity is the smallest amount of difference in
quantity that will change an instrument's reading

• Sensitivity of a spring balance can be expressed as 25

mm/kg (say), indicating additional load of 1 kg will
cause additional displacement of the spring by 25mm

• Sensitivity of an instrument may also vary with

temperature or other external or Environmental
factors. This is known as sensitivity drift
• Suppose the sensitivity of the spring balance
mentioned above is 25 mm/kg at 20 oC and 27
mm/kg at 30oC. Then the sensitivity drift/oC is
0.2 (mm/kg)/oC

• In order to avoid such sensitivity drift,

sophisticated instruments are either kept at
controlled temperature, or suitable in-built
temperature compensation schemes are
provided inside the instrument
 SENSITIVITY
• The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the
change in instrument output that occurs when the
quantity being measured changes by a given
amount Thus, sensitivity is the ratio:

• For example, a pressure of 2 bar produces a

deflection of 10 degrees in a pressure gauge, the
sensitivity of the instrument is 5 degrees/bar
(assuming that the deflection is zero with zero
pressure applied)
• For example, a pressure of 2 bar produces a
deflection of 10 degrees in a pressure gauge, the
sensitivity of the instrument is 5 degrees/bar
(assuming that the deflection is zero with zero
pressure applied)
 THRESHOLD
• If the input to an instrument is gradually
increased from zero, the input will have to reach
a certain minimum level before the change in the
instrument’s output reading. This minimum level
of input is known as the threshold of the
instrument. Example: Eddy current Speedometer
used in automobiles typically have a threshold of
about 15km/h
 RESOLUTION
• If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input
value, it will again be found that output does not change
at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This
increment is called resolution.

• A voltmeter, operating in 0-2V range, can have

maximum reading of 1.999V, and it cannot measure any
change in voltage below 0.001V. Resolution indicates the
minimum change in input variable that is detectable.
resolution is also defined in terms of
percentage as:
HYSTERESIS
• Figure shows illustrates the output characteristic of an
instrument that exhibits hysteresis. If the input measured
quantity to the instrument is steadily increased from a
negative value, the output reading varies in the manner
shown in curve (A)

• If the input variable is then steadily decreased, the

output varies in the manner shown in curve (B). The non
coincidence between these loading and unloading curves
is known as hysteresis

• . Hysteresis is most commonly found in instruments that

contain springs, such as the passive pressure gauge
DEAD SPACE/DEAD ZONE
• Dead space is defined as the range of different
input values over which there is no change in
output value.

• Some instruments that do not suffer from any

significant hysteresis can still exhibit a dead
space in their output characteristics however

• Backlash in gears is a typical cause of dead

space, and results in the sort of instrument
output characteristic shown in Figure.
 DRIFT
• The actual change in the measurement value
when the same characteristics is measured
under the similar conditions and same operator
at different instruments needs recalibration or
it is the slow change if a metrological
characteristics of a measuring instrument
 ZERO DRIFT OR BIAS
• It describes the effect where the zero reading of an
instrument is modified by a change in ambient conditions.
This causes a constant error (System error) that exists over
the full range of measurement of the instrument.
• If someone of known weight 70 kg were to get on the scale,
the reading would be 71 kg, and if someone of known
weight 100 kg were to get on the scale, the reading would
be 101 kg.
• Zero drift is normally removable by calibration.
 SENSITIVITY OR SPAN DRIFT
• It defines the amount by which an instrument’s
sensitivity of measurement varies as ambient
conditions change

• It is quantified by sensitivity drift coefficients that

define how much drift there is for a unit change in
each environmental parameter that the instrument
characteristics are sensitive to

• Many components within an instrument are

affected by environmental fluctuations, such as
temperature changes: for instance, the modulus of
elasticity of a spring is temperature dependent
 Zonal drift
• In case the drift occurs only a portion of span
of an instrument, it is called zonal drift.
 Transducers
• A device which converts a physical quantity into
the proportional electrical signal is called a
transducer.

• The electrical signal produced may be a voltage,

current or frequency.

• A transducer uses many effects to produce such

conversion.
• The process of transforming signal from one form
to other is called transduction. A transducer is also
called pick up.

• The transduction element transforms the output of

the sensor to an electrical output,
• Sensing Element
• The physical quantity or its rate of change is sensed and
responded to by this part of the transistor.

• Transduction Element
• The output of the sensing element is passed on to the
transduction element.

• This element is responsible for converting the non-

electrical signal into its proportional electrical signal.
• There may be cases when the transduction element
performs the action of both transduction and
sensing.

• The best example of such a transducer is a

thermocouple. A thermocouple is used to generate
a voltage corresponding to the heat that is
generated at the junction of two dissimilar metals.
• Antenna: is the most basic transducer and can be made
from a simple piece of wire. It converts electromagnetic
energy into electricity when it receives signals and does
the opposite when it transmits

• Strain gauges: have a long thin wire attached to a foil

backing which is glued to an object. When the object
changes shape, the strain gauge also changes shape and
its resistance changes. The amount of stress or strain in
the object is calculated from this change in resistance
• Accelerometer: which converts the change in position
of mass into an electrical signal. Accelerometers
measure the force of acceleration and deceleration.
They are used in car airbags, stability control, hard
drives, and many electronic gadgets

• Microphone and Speaker. Microphones convert

sound pressure waves into electrical current, while
speaker convert electrical current into sound
pressure waves. • And many many others
• The Classification of Transducers is done in many
ways.
• Some of the criteria for the classification are based
on their area of application,
• Method of energy conversion,
• Nature of output signal,
• According to Electrical principles involved,
• Electrical parameter used,
• principle of operation, & Typical applications.
• The transducers can be classified broadly
• On the basis of transduction form used
• As primary and secondary transducers
• As active and passive transducers
• As transducers and inverse transducers
 Active and passive type transucer
• Active type transducer
• THERMOCOUPLE Thermocouples are the
devices that are extensively used for
measurement of temperature in industrial
situations.
• PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION : Thermocouples
works on 3 effects namely
i)SEE-BECK EFFECT:-
ii) PELTIER EFFECT :-
iii) THOMSON EFFECT :-
 SEEBECK EFFECT
• When two conductors made from dissimilar
metals are connected together forming 2
common junctions, a net thermal emf is
produced at the two junctions. The amount of
emf generated is different for different
combination of metals
• PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER Piezoelectric
transducer/sensor is a active transducer and it
does not need external power supply as it is
self generating. It is the devices which uses
piezoelectric effect to measure the changes in
pressure, temperature, acceleration, strain by
converting them to electrical pulse.
• PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION Piezoelectric effect
- There are certain materials that generates a
electric potential or voltage when a
mechanical strain is applied to them, they
tend to change the dimensions along plane.
• This effect is called piezoelectric effect .
Piezoelectric transducers uses this principle for
measurement of pressure, temperature etc.
 Passive type
• LVDT
• STRAIN GAUGE
• Fundamentally, all strain gages are designed to
convert mechanical motion into an electronic
signal. A change in capacitance, inductance, or
resistance is proportional to the strain experienced
by the sensor. If a wire is held under tension, it gets
slightly longer and its cross-sectional area is
reduced.
 Strain Gauge
The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that
uses electric resistance variation in wires to sense the strain
produced by a force on wires. It is a very versatile detector
and transducer for measuring weight, pressure, mechanical
force, or displacement.
The construction of a bonded strain
gauge (see figure) shows a fine wire
element looped back and forth on a
mounting plate, which is usually
cemented to the member
undergoing stress. A tensile stress
tends to elongate the wire and
thereby increase its length and
decrease its cross-sectional area.
86
 L
R
Where,
A
ρ: the specific resistance of the conductor material in ohm meters
L : length of conductor (meters)
A : area of conductor (m2)

As consequence of strain, 2 physical qualities are particular

interest:

1) The change in gauge resistance

2) The change in length

The relationship between these two variables called gauge factor,

K, is expressed mathematically as 87
• This changes its resistance (R) in proportion to the
strain sensitivity (S) of the wire's resistance. When a
strain is introduced, the strain sensitivity, which is
also called the gage factor(GF), is given by:
 PRMARY AND SECONDARY
TRANSDUCER
• Primary Transducer – The transducer
consists the mechanical as well as the
electrical devices. The mechanical devices of
the transducer change the physical input
quantities into a mechanical signal. This
mechanical device is known as the primary
transducers.
• Secondary Transducer – The secondary transducer
converts the mechanical signal into an electrical
signal. The magnitude of the output signal depends
on the input mechanical signal.
• Example of Primary and Secondary Transducer
• Consider the Bourdon’s Tube shown in the figure
below. The tube act as a primary transducer. It
detects the pressure and converts it into a
displacement from its free end. The displacement
of the free ends moves the core of the linear
variable displacement transformer
• . The movement of the core induces the output
voltage which is directly proportional to the
displacement of the tube free end.

• Thus, the two type of transduction occurs in the

Bourdon’s tube. First, the pressure is converted into
a displacement and then it is converted into the
voltage by the help of the L.V.D.T.
 Direct and Inverse Transducer
• Transducer – The device which converts the
non-electrical quantity into an electric
quantity is known as the transducer.
• Eg: Thermocouples, Piezoelectric crystal,
generator
• Inverse Transducer – The transducer which
converts the electric quantity into a physical
quantity (non-electrical quantity), such type of
transducers is known as the inverse transducer. The
transducer has high electrical input and low non-
electrical output.
• Eg : Piezoelectric crystal – when voltage is applied
across its surface it changes its dimensions causing
the mechanical displacement
• Motor
 Analog and Digital Transducer
• The transducer can also be classified by their
output signals. The output signal of the
transducer may be continuous or discrete.

• Analog Transducer – The Analog transducer

changes the input quantity into a continuous
function. The strain gauge, L.V.D.T,
thermocouple, thermistor are the examples of
the analogue transducer.
• Digital Transducer – These transducers convert an
input quantity into a digital signal or in the form of
the pulse and its output is represented by 0 and 1
form. The digital signals work on high or low power.
• EG: Optical Encoder
• The transducer is classified by the transduction
medium. The transduction medium may be
resistive, inductive or capacitive depends on the
conversion process that how input transducer
converts the input signalinto resistance,
inductance and capacitance respectively.
DEFLCTION AND NULL TYPE
 Linear Variable Differential
Transducers (LVDT)
• LVDT works under the principle of mutual
induction, and the displacement which is a non-
electrical energy is converted into an electrical
energy

• Mutual Inductance between the two coils is

defined as the property of the coil due to which it
opposes the change of current in the other coil, or
you can say in the neighboring coil.
• When the current in the neighboring coil is
changing, the flux sets up in the coil and because of
this changing flux emf is induced in the coil called
Mutually Induced emf and the phenomenon is
known as Mutual Inductance.
• Construction
• Construction of LVDT
• Main Features of Construction are as, The
transformer consists of a primary winding P and two
secondary winding S1 and S2 wound on a cylindrical
former (which is hollow in nature and will contain
core).
• Both the secondary windings have equal number of turns
and are identically placed on the either side of primary
winding

• The primary winding is connected to an AC source which

produces a flux in the air gap and voltages are induced in
secondary windings.

• A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former and

displacement to be measured is connected to the iron core.
• The iron core is generally of high permeability
which helps in reducing harmonics and high
sensitivity of LVDT.

• The LVDT is placed inside a stainless steel housing

because it will provide electrostatic and
electromagnetic shielding.
• The both the secondary windings are connected in
such a way that resulted output is the difference of
the voltages of two windings.

• The movement of core determine the amount of

voltage in each windings
 Working of LVDT:
• Let’s study the working of LVDT by splitting the
cases into 3 based on the iron core position inside the
insulated former.

• Case 1:On applying an external force which is the

displacement, if the core reminds in the null position
itself without providing any movement then the
voltage induced in both the secondary windings are
equal which results in net output is equal to zero
Esec1-Esec2=0
• Case 2
When an external force is applied and if the steel iron
core tends to move in the upper side direction then
the emf voltage induced in the secondary coil B is
greater when compared to the emf induced in the
secondary coil C. Therefore the net output will be
Esec B-Esec C= +ve value
For eg : The EMF voltage on secondary coil B is 3v and
The EMF voltage on secondary coil C is 2v then net
EMF is 1v
Net EMF voltage = 3v – 2v = 1 v
• CASE III
When the core is moved to downward of Null
position (for displacement to the downward of
reference point). the emf voltage induced in the
secondary coil C is greater when compared to the
emf induced in the secondary coil B. Therefore the
net output will be
Esec B-Esec C= -ve value
• EG: The EMF voltage on secondary coil B is 2v and
The EMF voltage on secondary coil C is 3v then net
EMF is 1v
• 2v-3v = -1v
180 deg phase shift
 Output VS Core Displacement A linear curve
shows that output voltage varies linearly with
displacement of core.
• The x axis shows the negative and positive
displacements of iron core.
• Positive x means the core is in the positive
displacement.
• Negative x means the core is in the negative
displacement
• The curve indicates the core is taken out of the
bobbin
 Advantages of LVDT
• High Range - The LVDTs have a very high range for
measurement of [Link] can used for
measurement of displacements ranging from 1.25
mm to 250 mm

• No Frictional Losses - As the core moves inside a

hollow former so there is no loss of displacement
input as frictional loss so it makes LVDT as very
accurate device.
• High Input and High Sensitivity - The output of LVDT is so
high that it doesn’t need any amplification. The transducer
posseses a high sensitivity which is typically about 40V/mm.

• Low Hysteresis - LVDTs show a low hysteresis and hence

repeatability is excellent under all conditions

• Low Power Consumption - The power is about 1W which is

very as compared to other transducers.
• Direct Conversion to Electrical Signals - They convert the
linear displacement to electrical voltage which are easy to
process

• Disadvantages of LVDT
• LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so they always
require a setup to protect them from stray magnetic fields.
• They are affected by vibrations and temperature.
• It is concluded that they are advantageous as compared
than any other inductive transducers.
 Applications of LVDT
• They are used in applications where displacements ranging
from fraction of mm to few cm are to be measured. The
LVDT acting as a primary transducer converts the
displacement to electrical signal directly.
• They can also acts as the secondary transducers. E.g. the
Bourbon tube which acts as a primary transducer and
covert pressure into linear displacement then LVDT
coverts this displacement into electrical signal which after
calibration gives the ideas of the pressure of fluid.
• Used in all measurements
• Used to measure force, weight and pressure
• Measurement and control of thickness of metal
sheet
• Measurement of Tension in a cord
 Dynamic characteristics
• Dynamic means that something is changing (with
time)
• Steady state = no change
• At steady state, differential equations are not
needed
• The set of criteria defined for the instruments,
which are changes rapidly with time, is called
‘dynamic characteristics’.
• The various static characteristics are: i) Speed of
response ii) Measuring lag iii) Fidelity iv) Dynamic
error
• The static characteristics refer to the results when a
constant input is applied.
• What happens if the input is not constant but is
changing?
• How does the instrument respond?
• That depends on the dynamic characteristics.
• For example, a standard thermometer is suitable for
measuring the temperature in this room.

• This changes slowly during the day and night,

without sudden changes.

• Compare this to the measurement of cylinder

temperature in a combustion engine. This change
extremely suddenly and by a large amount.
• The output from the standard thermometer to this
type of input would be useless.
• Different instruments handle changing inputs in
different ways.
• To compare instruments fairly, we should apply
the same type of input to each and measure the
result.
• An easily repeatable changing input is required.
There are three standard types of
changing inputs
 Step Input
• Think of the situation where a thermometer is
suddenly moved from a beaker of ice and
water into a bath of boiling water.
• Is this a step change in the input?
• Describe what happens to the reading on the
thermometer.
• Does it take a long time to get to the new
value?
 Ramp Input
• For example a thermometer is placed in a bath
of water and ice and a constant heat is applied
to the bath. The thermometer reading is
recorded as the bath temperature is ramped
from 0 to 100degC.
 Sine Wave Input
• The laboratory experiment with the LVDT
uses a sine wave input