MODULE 2
SYLLABUS - In situ Densification-Deep compaction and shallow compaction,
Properties of compacted soil and compaction control.
Dynamic Compaction-Procedure-design considerations, soil suitability, Merit and
demerit.
Vibration methods-Vibro compaction techniques-Blasting, Vibrating compactors
Vibro displacement methods-Vibro-flotation.
Sand pile, Stone column, Lime pile-principle, installation procedure, basic design
considerations, soil suitability, Merit and demerits
• Compaction means pressing the soil particles
close to each other by mechanical methods
• Air during compaction is expelled from the
void space in the soil mass and hence mass
density is increased
• Compaction is an entirely different process
than consolidation
• It is Reduction in volume due to expulsion of
air from voids
• Rapid process by mechanical method
• Artificial process to increase density
Objectives of compaction
• To increase strength and bearing capacity of
soil
• To reduce the settlement of soil
• To reduce the permeability of soil
LABORATORY COMPACTION TEST
• To determine the optimum moisture content to
obtain maximum density
• Usually there are Two tests
• 1. Light compaction test (Standard Proctor test)
• 2. Heavy compaction test (Modified Proctor test)
PROCEDURE
• Cylindrical mould with diameter of 100mm and height of 127.3
mm is used .
• Hammer with a mass of 2.6 kg and free fall height of 310 mm.
• 3 kg soil passing through 4.75 mm sieve is taken.
• Water is added to the soil to bring its water content to about 4% if
the soil is coarse grained and to about 8% if it is fine-grained.
• Mould is cleaned and greased lightly.
• Mass of empty mould without collar and with base plate is taken.
• Collar is fitted to the mould.
• The soil is filled in three equal layers in the mould and each layer
is compacted by 25 blows of rammer with a free fall of 310 mm.
• Collar is removed and soil is trimmed off.
• Mass of mould with base plate and compacted soil is taken.
• The values of dry density determined can be plotted
against the corresponding moisture contents
• Dry density first increases with increase in water content
till maximum density is attained. With further increase in
water content dry density decreases.
• Water content corresponding to maximum dry density is
known as Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) or
Optimum Water Content.
• For a given water content, theoretical maximum density,
(ρd) theomax is obtained corresponding to the condition
when there are no air voids (ie S=100%)
• Cylindrical mould with diameter of 100mm and height of 127.3 mm.
• Hammer with a mass of 4.89 kg and free fall of 450 mm.
• The procedure is same as that of light compaction test. The soil taken is
5 kg. The soil is compacted in five layers with 25 tamping.
• Dry densities are obtained for different water contents and compaction
curve is drawn
• The curve is higher than and to the left of that obtained from a standard Proctor
test.
• The heavier compaction increases the maximum density but decreases the
optimum water content
PLACEMENT WATER CONTENT
• The water content applied in the field for compaction is called placement
water content
• It may be different from OMC obtained in the lab.
• To avoid large swelling, soils are compacted with water content more than
the OMC
• To obtain more shear strength, soil is compacted with water content less
than the OMC
RELATIVE COMPACTION
• The maximum dry density obtained in the field may be different from
maximum dry density obtained in the lab
• The ratio of dry density in the field to the maximum density obtained in the
lab is known as the Relative Compaction
COMPACTION CONTROL
• It is necessary to check the density and water content in the
field to achieve effective compaction
• Compaction control is done by measuring the dry density
and water content of the compacted soil in the field
Control of Density
• Dry density in the field are measured by core cutter method
or sand replacement method
Control of Water content
• Water content in the field is measured by calcium carbide
method, alcohol method, sand bath method and Proctor
needle method
Compaction control by Proctor needle method
• Used to measure the water content in the field indirectly
• Proctor’s needle consists of a rod attached to a spring-loaded plunger.
The stem of plunger is marked to read the resistance recorded during
the test.
• The needle shank has graduations to indicate the depth of penetration
• Varying cross sections of needle points are available.
• The needle is penetrated into the soil after the soil has been
compacted at a given water content in the compaction test in the
laboratory
• The penetration force is read on stem at top
• The force required for penetration depends upon the water content
• A calibration curve is prepared between water content and penetration
resistance
• Water content is determined from the calibration curve corresponding
to the penetration resistance of the compacted soil in the field
COMPACTION QUALITY CONTROL
• Moisture content measurements
• In-situ density measurements
• Nuclear moisture density methods
• Hilfs method
Moisture content measurements
• Oven drying method takes 24 hours and cannot be used to
control during construction
• In the field water content determination is generally done by
alcohol method, sand bath method, or calcium carbide
method .
• It can also be found indirectly by proctor needle test.
• To determine the water content the soil is compacted in the
same manner as during the calibration of the needle the
penetration resistance of the soil is measured
• • The moisture content is observed from the calibration graph.
In-situ density measurements
• In situ density measurements are made on a grid basis, as
one test per cubic meters of compacted soil volume.
• For embankment constructions it is one test per 2000m3
• For industrial buildings its one test per 1000m3
• Further it can be done wherever sufficient compactions are
doubted.
• In cohesive soils chunk samples are obtained to determine
density.
• In cohesion less samples sand cone density test or rubber
balloon test is used.
Nuclear moisture density methods
• Gives rapid results
• Principle components are
• 1 nuclear source that emits gamma rays
• 2 detector to pick up gamma rays passing through tested soil.
• 3. A scalar to determine the rate at which gamma rays reach
the detector.
• The rays reach the detector by direct transmission or after
hitting the soil minerals, this rate is inversely proportional to
the density and is determined by keeping a nuclear count at
the detector.
Hilfs method
• Rapid compaction control procedure recommended by IS
2720 :part 38 ,1976
• Gives the exact % of laboratory maximum dry density
• Difference between optimum and fill moisture content of a field
density sample
• It facilitates the compaction control within one hour after field test.
APPLICATIONS
• Placement of earth fill in dam construction
• Highway embankment
• Canal embankments
• Similar structures built of cohesive soil
Engineering Behaviour of Compacted Soils
• The water content of a compacted soil is expressed
with reference to the OMC.
• Thus, soils are said to be compacted dry of
optimum or wet of optimum (i.e. on the dry side or
wet side of OMC).
• The structure of a compacted soil is not similar on
both sides even when the dry density is the same,
and this difference has a strong influence on the
engineering characteristics.
Soil Structure
For a given compactive effort,
• soils have a flocculated structure on the dry side (i.e. soil
particles are oriented randomly),
• whereas they have a dispersed structure on the wet side (i.e.
particles are more oriented in a parallel arrangement
perpendicular to the direction of applied stress).
• This is due to the well-developed adsorbed water layer (water
film) surrounding each particle on the wet side.
Swelling
• Due to a higher water deficiency and partially developed
water films in the dry side, when given access to water, the
soil will soak in much more water and then swell more
Shrinkage
• During drying, soils compacted in the wet side tend to show more shrinkage than
those
• compacted in the dry side. In the wet side, the more orderly orientation of particles
allows them to pack more efficiently.
Construction Pore Water Pressure
• The compaction of man-made deposits proceeds layer by layer, and pore water
• pressures are induced in the previous layers.
• Soils compacted wet of optimum will have higher pore water pressures compared
to soils
• compacted dry of optimum, which have initially negative pore water pressure.
Compressibility
• At low applied stresses, the dry compacted soil is less compressible on account of
its truss-like arrangement of particles whereas the wet compacted soil is more
compressible.
Stress strain relationship
• The stress-strain curve of the dry compacted soil
rises to a peak and drops down when the flocculated
structure collapses.
• Posses high modulus of elasticity
• At high applied stresses, the initially flocculated and
the initially dispersed soil samples will have similar
structures, and they exhibit similar compressibility
and strength.
• Lower modulus of elasticity
NUMERICAL 1
Q1) Following results were obtained from a
standard compaction test in a soil sample. The
volume of the mould used was 950 ml. Make
necessary calculation and plot the compaction
curve. Obtain the maximum dry density and
optimum moisture content. Also calculate the
void ratio, degree of saturation and theoretical
maximum dry density. (G=2.70)
Water 12 14 16 18 20 22
Content (%)
Mass of Wet 1.68 1.85 1.91 1.87 1.87 1.85
Soil (kg)
• Plot a compaction curve on normal graph with X axis –Water
content & Y axis – Dry density.
• From the compaction curve, OMC = 0.152 = 15.2%
• Max Dry Density = 1.74 g/ml
Grid Roller Impact Roller
DYNAMIC COMPACTION
• Technique involves repeatedly dropping a large weight from a crane.
• Weight may range from 6 to 172 tons and Drop height typically varies from 10
m to 40 m.
• Degree of densification achieved is a function of the energy input (weight and
drop height) as well as the saturation level, fines content and permeability of the
material. 6 – 30 ton weight can densify the loose sands to a depth of 3 m to 12 m.
• It is done systematically in a rectangular or triangular pattern in phases. Each
phase can have no of passes; primary, secondary, tertiary, etc.
• Spacing between impact points depend upon:
• o Depth of compressible layer
• o Permeability of soil
• o Location of ground water level
• Deeper layers are compacted at wider grid spacing, upper layers are compacted
with closer grid spacing.
• Deep craters are formed by tamping.
• Craters may be filled with sand after each pass.
• Heave around craters is generally small.
VIBRATORY PROBE
• Vibratory probe, also called as Terra Probe, consists of a vibrodriver (similar
to vibratory pile driving) coupled to an open-ended steel tubular probe of
760 mm diameter and 15m length.
• The probe vibrate in the vertical direction and a vertical impulse normally at
15 Hz with 10 to 25 mm amplitude.
• The probe is sunk to the desired depth and held for 30 to 60 seconds before
extraction.
• A spacing of 1 to 3 m is generally adopted.
• A square pattern is followed with a fifth probe at the centre of each square to
achieve an increase of densification, instead of adopting a reduced spacing.
• Effective treatment has been accomplished between 4 m below the ground
surface and up to a depth of 20 m.
• The operation is very efficient when the groundwater is 2 to 3 m of the
surface.
• A water jet may be used to easy penetration of the probe for sites where the
water table is deep but the jet has to be stopped during withdrawal. Ponding
of the site may also be adopted to utilise this technique in a better way.
• DYNAMIC
REPLACEMENT
• The formation by heavy
tamping of large pillars of
imported granular soil within
the body of soft saturated soil
to be improved.
• The original soil is highly
compressed and consolidated
between the pillars and the
excess pore pressure generated
requires several hours to
dissipate.
• The pillars are used both for
soil reinforcement and drainage
VIBRO REPLACEMENT
• Where fines content of the soils in the target treatment interval exceeds the
acceptable range for vibro compaction, another ground improvement process of
Vibro-Replacement/Displacement by installation of stone columns can be
applied.
• Type of soil
• Vibro Replacement is an accepted method for subsoil improvement, at which
large-sized columns of coarse backfill material are installed in the soil by means
of special depth vibrators.
• Vibro replacement is part of the deep vibratory compaction techniques whereby
loose or soft soil is improved for building purposes by means of special depth
vibrators.
• Contrary to vibro compaction which densifies non-cohesive soil by the aid of
vibrations and improves it thereby directly, vibro replacement improves non
compactable cohesive soil by the installation of load bearing columns of well
compacted, coarse grained backfill material.
• Equipment and execution
• For the construction of Vibro Replacement columns the bottom feed
process is frequently employed, which feeds coarse granular
material to the tip of the vibrator with the aid of pressurized air.
• To optimize the performance of this process and to accommodate
the specialized equipment, vibrocat is developed at base unit which
guides the vibrator on its leader and allows the exertion of an
additional pull-down pressure during penetration and compaction.
• The Vibro Replacement process consists of alternating steps.
• During the retraction (pull away) step, gravel runs from the vibrator
tip into the annular space created and is then compacted and pressed
into the surrounding soil during the following re-penetration step.
• In this manner stone columns are created from the bottom up,
which act as a composite with the surrounding soil under load.
• Vibro-Replacement Procedures
• Stage1: The vibrocat positions the vibrator
over the required location of the compaction
point and stabilises itself using hydraulic
supports.
• A wheel loader fills the skip with aggregate.
The jet at the bottom of the Vibroflot is turned
on and lowered into the ground
• Stage2: The water jet creates a quick
condition in the soil. It allows the vibrating
unit to sink into the ground
• ROTATIONAL DYNAMIC COMPACTION
• A new dynamic compaction technique which makes use of the
free fall energy as well as rotational energy of the tamper
called Rotational Dynamic Compaction (RDC).
• The technique increases depth of improvement in granular
soils.
• Comparative study showed that the cone penetration resistance
was generally larger than conventional dynamic compaction
and the tamper penetration in rotational dynamic compaction
was twice as large as that of conventional dynamic compaction
APPLICATIONS OF DYNAMIC COMPACTION
• Reduce foundation settlements
• Densify waste deposits
• Prevent soil liquefaction during earthquakes
• Increase in-situ density of land reclamation fills