GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY

Module 3 Part 1
Syllabus
ENGINEERING SIGNIFICANCE OF SUBSURFACE
WATER

• Subsurface water is often a critical factor in various engineering works.

• It may pose problems not only during the construction stage but it has a
potential to affect the safe functioning of an engineering project.
• Almost every engineering project like, buildings, highway pavements,
airport runways, dams, underground structures, structures on rock and
soil slopes may be affected in one way or other by the subsurface water,
which may lead to failure of such projects, thus causing loss of life and
property.
• In many cases the construction of engineering structures will be responsible in
changing the subsurface water regimes. Particularly the underground structures
and the reservoir projects have a potential to change the subsurface water
regimes considerably.
• Subsurface water affects site selection, cost, durability and even the safety of
the structures.
• Subsurface water plays a prominent part in slope movement, volume changes
by shrinkage and swelling and collapse of loose soils.
It may also erode the foundation of the structures, Rocks and soil properties,
which forms the foundation of the structures, are often changed by groundwater.
• Subsurface water may influence excavation and construction methods by
flowing into excavations
• Natural subsurface water regimes may be directly influenced by
hydraulic structures.
• In engineering geological investigation the following important
information on subsurface water conditions should be evaluated;
 the distribution of sub-surface water
 water content
 direction and velocity of subsurface water flow
 springs and seepages from individual water bearing horizons
 depth to water table and its range of fluctuation
 regions of confined water and piezometric levels
 hydro chemical properties such as pH, salinity, corrosiveness
 Presence of bacterial or other pollutants.
• Subsurface water conditions are significant for three major aspects of
civil engineering works;
 subsurface water may pose a problem to construction,
 it may be an erosive agent that degrades the foundation of the structure
and
 Subsurface water may be critical to the functioning of the structure

Water resource management

Problems created by Ground water to Civil
Engineering Structures
Tunnel and other underground
structures
• Tunnels – Underground passages
• Any tunnel may pass through one of following conditions –
1. Entire length of tunnel located above WT (Dry tunnel)
2. Entire length of tunnel located Below WT(Wet tunnel)
3. Alignment is partly above and partly below WT (combined section)

Considerations should be different – depends on number of factors

• Subsurface water has the potential to cause great difficulties for
underground works
• efforts should be made to define the subsurface water regime.
• Data/ information on aquifers, sources of water, water quality and depth
to subsurface water should be collected.
• Mapping of perennial streams and other water bodies should be carried
out.
• Proximity of the subsurface water table may be judged by the type of
vegetation growth on the site.
• As a part of the subsurface water survey, all existing water wells in the
area should be located and the subsurface water levels should be taken
• The most serious problem encountered during excavation is the sudden
inflow of large quantities of water.
• Ground water and seepage pressures are major factors for flowing and
squeezing ground.
• The possible high corrosive effect of water on lining of the opening
should also be considered.
• On the other hand construction of a tunnel may vitally change the water
regime of a locality.
• It is obvious that a tunnel located above the water table is safe from
water invasion,
• hence it is desirable to locate the tunnel above the water table. However,
this is not possible always.
• Construction of tunnel not only modifies the sub-surface water regime,
but also influences the surface flow of water in the locality with a
corresponding lowering of the water table.
• Even in some cases the water in wells and spring drained dry by the
excavation of a tunnel.
Engineering Significance of Subsurface Water
in Dam Projects
• The subsurface water has a great significance in the dam projects.
• The dam foundations are laid down at great depths depending upon the
height of the dam and the foundation conditions.
• In most of the cases the deepest foundation level of the dams are below
the natural subsurface water levels.
• Thus, there will always be an inflow of water into the excavation for
foundation, which may hinder the construction activities
• In most of the cases this inflow of water may be checked by pumping out
this water however, in exceptional cases the inflow of water may be
more than what is being pumped out.
• Such conditions may create great problems in excavation and concreting.
• Leakage from reservoirs can be a potential source of trouble. When a
dam impounds a body of water behind it, the rocks forming the floor of
the reservoir are subjected to considerable hydraulic pressure.
• The water under hydraulic head will find its way through interconnected
joints, bedding planes and porous rocks.
• If these joints and bedding planes dips towards the adjoining valleys this
leakage from the reservoir will be considerable.
• The presence of subsurface water in rock mass causes water pressure
within the discontinuities, which results in reduction of cohesion and
may cause problem of instability of reservoir rim slopes and the
abutments.
• Subsurface water may:
Pose problems in excavation and construction activities.
An erosive agent that may damage the structure.
Cause uplift problems in the dam foundation area.
• Failure of the structure due to the following effects of
ground water flow
- Seepage pressure of ground water flow – piping failure
• Uplift pressure on a dam
Piezometric Conditions
• The water from the reservoir may seep through the flanks of the
reservoir and the river bed and may recharge the subsurface water
regime of the area.
• However, it is not always true that the reservoir water will recharge the
subsurface water of the region, the flow in some conditions may be from
the subsurface water towards the reservoir.
• For this the factors which influence the water leakage from the reservoir
are;
• (i) Piezometric conditions in the reservoir’s floor & flanks and
• (ii) Natural permeability of the floor and flanks
Building Foundations and Failure of
Pavements
• The subsurface water has a potential to change the engineering properties
of the rocks and soils. Thus, the bearing capacity of soils may be
considerably reduced because of the subsurface water.
• The deformation of the expansive soils, as foundation material, may result
into uneven settlement or upheaval of the structures, this may result into
cracks in the walls and the floor of the structure, however in extreme
condition the entire structure can fail.
• The fluctuations in subsurface water conditions are responsible in changing
the properties of the subgrade. Repeated wetting and drying of the subgrade
may considerably reduce the bearing capacity of the soil.
• Variations in the strength property of the subgrade material results into
longitudinal cracks in the pavement.
Engineering Significance of Subsurface Water
in stability conditions of slopes
• The role of subsurface water in stability condition of a
slope is very crucial. As it has a potential to saturate the
soil mass and thus increases the overall weight of the soil
mass.
• This increase in weight of the soil mass is a negative
factor as far as the stability of the slope is concerned.
The presence of subsurface water will reduce the shear
strength of the soil mass and also it may generate the
pore water pressure which ultimately affects the stability
condition of the slope.
• The subsurface water in the discontinuity planes of the
rock mass develops an uplift water force thus reducing
the strength of the rock mass. The water not only
reduces the shear strength of the rock mass but it also
works as a lubricant and facilitates the process of sliding
along possible failure surfaces.
DARCY’S LAW
• Darcy's law is an equation that describes the flow of a fluid through a
porous medium.
• The law was formulated by Henry Darcy based on the results of
experiments on the flow of water through beds of sand, forming the basis
of hydrogeology
• Hydraulic gradient is the difference in hydraulic head at two points (h 1
– h2) divided by the length (L). It is represented as ‘i’. The above
equation may be re-written as,
𝑽=𝑲𝒊
It is known that in a pipe flow condition which is analogous to flow in
porous medium, the discharge Q is given by
𝑸=𝑽.𝑨
• Where, A = cross sectional Area
• V = Specific Discharge/Velocity
• From the above equation, the relationship of discharge to hydraulic
conductivity is easily established 𝑸=𝑲𝒊𝑨
• Q represents discharge and is expressed as discharge per unit time such
as cubic meters per day or gallons per minute.
• K is the hydraulic conductivity and indicates the quantity of water that
will flow through a unit cross-sectional area per unit time under a unit
hydraulic gradient, at a specified temperature.
• The value of K ranges from 0.5 m/day to 200 m/day or even more.
Permeability
• Permeability is the capacity of a rock or any other solid medium to
transmit fluids through it.
• It is often expressed as intrinsic permeability.
• Its unit is Darcy (d), which is the capacity of a rock of 1cm length and
1cm2 cross-sectional area to allow a flow of 1cm3/sec at a difference of
1 atmosphere.
• Permeability is related to the quality of pores and interstices in a rock.
• Rocks with closed or dead end pores will not transmit water through it.
• Rocks are generally classified into three based on their coefficient of
permeability, k.
Factors affecting Permeability of
soils
Hydraulic conductivity
• In hydrogeology, the quantitative measurement of flow or water is
expressed by hydraulic conductivity rather than permeability.
• Hydraulic conductivity K, is defined as the flow velocity per unit
hydraulic gradient.
• It is expressed as meters/day or meters/second.
Transmissivity
• Transmissivity (hydrology), the rate at which groundwater flows
horizontally through an aquifer.
• Transmissivity expresses the capability of an entire aquifer to transmit
water.
• The coefficient of transmissivity T, (transmissibility) is defined as ‘Rate
of flow through a vertical section of an aquifer of unit width
extending the full saturated length of the aquifer under a unit
hydraulic head’.
• T = K.B
University Qns
• Define permeability? Discuss its importance in earth extraction and
construction.(4)
• The Varkala sandstone has bulk volume of 145m3 and estimated to have
a pore space volume of 27.76m3. Calculate the porosity of the
sandstone.(5)
• Evaluate the porosity and permeability of rocks(7)
• Discuss the ground water flow equation using Darcy’s law(6)
• Elucidate the problems created by subsurface water in construction
sites(9)
• Evaluate the porosity and permeability of rocks
• Definition of porosity and permeability (2)
• Aquifer (1) aquiclude (1) aquitard (1) aquifuge (1) examples (1)

• Discuss the ground water flow equation using Darcy’s law

• Definition of Darcy’s law (2) Experimental verification of Darcy’s law
for
• deriving hydraulic conductivity (4)
• Definition of subsurface water (2) Problems created by subsurface water
in
• construction sites (7)
Experimental Verification of Darcy’s Law
• Experimental verification The experimental verification of Darcy's law can be performed
with water flowing at a rate ‘Q’ through a cylinder of cross sectional area ‘A' packed with
sand and having piezometer a distance ‘L’ a part. Total energy heads ,or fluid potentials
above a datum plane may be expressed by, P1/ ρ +V1^2/2g+Z1=P2/ ρ +V2^2/2g+Z2+hL
……..(1) Where p-pressure ρ -specific weight of water V-velocity of flow g-acceleration due
to gravity Z-elevation hL-head loss Because velocities in porous media are usually low,
velocity heads may be neglected without appreciable error. Hence by rewriting, the head
loss becomes, hL =(P1/ ρ +Z1)-(P2/ ρ+Z2) ……..(2) Hence the resulting head loss is
defined as the potential loss within the sand cylinder ,this energy being lost by frictional
resistance dissipated as heat energy. It is independent on the inclination of the cylinder.
• 7. Now Darcy's measurement showed that the proportionalities,Q~hL and Q~1/L exist.
Introducing a proportionality constant's leads to the equation, Q=-KA hL/L ……..(3)
Expressed in general terms Q=-KA dh/dl ……..(4) or V=Q/A=-K dh/dl …….(5) where, V-
Darcy's velocity or specific discharge K-hydraulic conductivity dh/dl-hydraulic gradient
The – sign of the equation indicates that the flow of water is in the direction of decreasing
head.
• 8. Darcy’s velocity The velocity, V=Q/A=-K dh/dl This is referred to as Darcy's
velocity because it assumes that flow occurs through the entire cross section of the
material without regard to solids and pores.
• 9. Validity of Darcy's law Darcy's law applies to laminar flow in pores media, such
as water flowing in a capillary tube. For flow in pipes and other large sections, the
Reynolds number which expresses the dimensionless ratio of inertial to viscous
forces, serves as a criterion to distinguish between laminar and turbulent flow.
Reynolds number is expressed as Where, ρ is the density of the fluid v is the
specific discharge d30 is a representative grain diameter for the porous medium μ
is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
• 10. If Re<1 then Darcy's law is valid and it does not depart upto Re=10 then this
represents an upper limit to the validity of Darcy's law. fortunately most natural
underground flow occurs with Re<1 so Darcy's law is applicable. Deviation from
Darcy's law can occurs where steep hydraulic gradients exist, such as near pumped
wells, also turbulent flow can be found in rocks such as limestone that contain
large underground openings.
Hydrological Cycle