Problem Solving
and
Reasoning
A. Inductive and Deductive
Reasoning
Inductive and deductive reasoning are two fundamental types of reasoning for
mathematicians.
Inductive Reasoning
- refers to the process of making generalized decisions after observing, and/or witnessing
repeated specific instances of something
- a process of reaching conclusions based on a series of observations
- used to form hypotheses
- usually leads to deductive reasoning
- may or may not be valid
Deductive Reasoning
- refers to the process of taking the information gathered from general observations and making
specific decisions based on that information
- is a process of reaching conclusions based on previously known facts
- used to prove ideas
- correct and valid
Examples of Inductive Reasoning:
1. 1st Premise: John is an excellent swimmer.
2nd Premise: John’s family has a swimming pool.
Conclusion: John’s sister Mary must also be an excellent swimmer.
2. 1st Premise: Elijah is good-looking.
2nd Premise: Elijah is well-behaved.
Conclusion: Therefore, all good-looking are well-behaved.
3. 1st Premise: The coin pulled from a bag is a dime.
2nd Premise: A second coin from the bag is a dime.
Conclusion: Therefore, all the coins in the bag are dimes.
Examples of Deductive Reasoning:
1. 1st Premise: All numbers ending in 0 and 5 are divisible by 5.
2nd Premise: The number 35 ends with a 5.
Conclusion: Therefore, 35 is divisible by 5.
2. 1st Premise: All squares are rectangles.
2nd Premise: All rectangles have four sides.
Conclusion: Therefore, all squares have four sides.
3. 1st Premise: All men are mortal.
2nd Premise: Math teachers are men.
Conclusion: Math teachers are mortal.
Activity
1
Deductive and
Inductive
Reasoning
Write DR if the conclusion is reached through
deductive reasoning, and write IR if the
conclusion is reached through inductive
reasoning
________________1. A quadrilateral has four sides.
A square has four sides.
Therefore, a square is a quadrilateral.
________________2. If A = B and B = C, then A = C.
________________3. My English teacher this semester is skinny.
My English teacher last semester was skinny.
Therefore, English teachers are skinny.
________________4. All even numbers are divisible by 2.
18 is an even number.
Therefore, 18 is divisible by 2.
________________5. Angles A, B, and C are angles inside a triangle.
The sum of the angles of any triangle equals 180 degrees .
Therefore, the sum of angles A, B, and C equals 180 degrees .
B. Intuition, Proof and Certainty
Intuition is the ability to understand something instinctively, without the need for
conscious reasoning.
Mathematical proof is an argument which convinces other people that something
is true.
Certainty is total continuity and validity of inquiries to the highest degree of
precision.
C. Polya’s Four Steps to Problem-
Solving
George Polya (1887 – 1985), known as the father of modern
problem-solving
1. Preparation: Understand the problem.
2. Thinking time: Devise a plan.
3. Insight: Carry out the plan.
4. Verification: Look back.
Activity
2 Four-Step Problem-
Polya’s
Solving Strategy
Answer the following questions by writing the letter of
the best answer on the space provided before each
number.
1. A problem is already solved but is solved again by using a different method to see if it yields
the same answer. In which step of Polya’s problem-solving approach is it?
a. First b. Second c. Third d. Fourth
2. Which step of Polya’s process consists of identifying all relevant and irrelevant information
in a problem?
a. First b. Second c. Third d. Fourth
3. Which of Polya’s four steps makes use of strategies like drawing pictures; using variable
and choosing helpful names for variables or unknowns; and looking for patterns?
a. First b. Second c. Third d. Fourth
4. Which of Polya’s four steps double checks to make sure that all of the conditions related to
the problem are satisfied and double checks computations involved in finding the solution?
a. First b. Second c. Third d. Fourth
5. Does the second step of Polya’s four-way approach require understanding of the problem by
considering the necessary underlying mathematical concepts, as well as the terminology and
notation used in the problem?
a. Yes b. No c. Maybe d. Sometimes
D. Problem-Solving Strategies
There are simple and common problem-solving strategies, to mention a few:
▪ Guess (This includes guess-and-check and guess-and-improve.)
▪ Act it out. (Act it out and use equipment.)
▪ Draw (This includes drawing pictures and diagrams.)
▪ List/Tabulate (This includes making a table.)
Activity 3
Problem-Solving Strategies
Four siblings, namely: Amy, Jenn, Chard and Sonny watch their Dad’s
basketball game. Like others, they are sometimes childish and there are
moments of tantrums. Consider the following to guess their seating
arrangement:
a. Amy does not like to sit near Chard.
b. The boys want to sit together.
c. Jenn does not like to sit near Chard either.
d. Sonny is sitting between a boy and a girl.
e. Amy is sitting on the seat at the far left of the group.
Seat #1 Seat #2 Seat #3
E. Mathematical Problems Involving Patterns
Finding patterns is an important problem-solving strategy because many problems are similar and fall into
predictable patterns.
Example:
If you build a four-sided pyramid using basketballs and don't count the bottom as a side, how many balls will
there be in a pyramid that has six layers?
Layer Balls added Balls in this layer
1 (top) 1 1
2 3 4 (1 + 3 = 4)
3
4
5
6
Number Patterns level
Complete the scarf in the
following sequence
__ __
__ __
32
__ __
16 __
8 40
2
__
4 __ __ __
48
__ __ __
__
__ 24
F. Recreational Problems Using
Mathematics
Recreational mathematics involves problems, riddles, puzzles,
brain-teasers and games carried out for recreation or leisure rather
than as a research or application-based professional activity.
Recreational mathematics employs creative problem-solving,
logical reasoning approaches, reflective thinking and algebra
techniques.
Puzzle level 1
1 2
3 4 Across down
1. 8+4 1. 5+8
5
2. 6+9 2. 8+6
6
3. 7+7 3. 9+4
7 8 5. 5+8 4. 8+9
10 +
6. 5. 8+8
7
9 10 7. 9+7 6. 9+9
8. 9+9 7. 6+6
15 +
9. 8. 1+9
11 12 11 5 10 +
4+6 9.
.
12 10 10
9+5 5+9
. .
Pink spaces are not filled*
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