CHAPTER-1

SPECIAL RELATIVITY
Introduction
• Relativity- invariance of the equations that express the laws of physics or the way
physical measurements made in a given reference frame are related to measurements
made in another frame of reference.
Relativity

Special Relativity General Relativity

• concerns the comparison of • concerned with phenomena in
measurements made in different frames accelerated reference frames
of reference moving with constant and gravity
velocity relative to each other • Einstein around 1916
• Einstein and others in 1905
Classical Physics and Its Drawback
Newtonian mechanics and the law of Gravitation had explained how the planets moved
and related that to how ordinary objects here on earth responded to forces.
• The fundamental Newtonian mechanics (the laws of motion)
1st law of motion – law of inertia: If the net force acting on a body is zero, the body will
either remain at rest or will continue to move with constant velocity in a straight line.
2nd law of motion – When a force F applied on an object having a mass m, it will
accelerate.

3rd law of motion – law of action–reaction: For every applied force acting on an object
there is equal and opposite reactive force applied by that object.

Kinetic theory of gases (Thermodynamics) explained the behavior of gases and systems in
different state of entropy. The study of energy transformations involving heat, mechanical
work, and other aspects of energy and how these transformations relate to the properties of
matter.
Maxwell’s Theory of Electromagnetism explained the phenomena of electricity and
magnetism, predicted electromagnetic waves and identified light as an example of same.
Optics deals with the behavior of light and other electromagnetic waves.
A wide range of phenomena associated with objects, having large size, that move at
speeds much less than that of light and having forces of weak interaction can
successfully described by classical physics.
Now, let us see that the laws of Newtonian mechanics (classical physics), when used to
describe objects of very tiny nature or having very high energies, or traveling at very
high speeds, give predictions which disagree with experiment.
1. Conflict Between Ultimate Speed and Newton’s Laws
E.g., - an electron of mass 9.11 x 10-31 kg acted on by an electric field of l06 volts/m over a
distance of ten meters.
• If the electron starts from rest, the kinematic expression for the final speed v is

• It is now a well-known fact, substantiated by multitudes of experiments with cyclotrons

and other accelerating machines, that no particle can be made to go faster than the speed
of light, c = 2.9974 x 108 m/sec (hereafter we will use 3 x 108 m/sec for c). Thus,
Newtonian mechanics disagrees with experiment.
2. Classical Momentum and Energy Conservation Conflict with Experiment
• For a particle of mass m and velocity v colliding elastically with another of the same
mass initially at rest, conservation of energy gives

where V1 and V2 are the velocities of the two particles after the collision. (See Figure
below)
• Likewise, conservation of momentum gives us
• The scalar product of the latter equation with itself leads to

• In order to Equation 1 & 2 agree either of the final velocities (V 1 & V2) should be zero or the
angle between the final velocities must be ninety degrees.
• The experimental results of two colliding large objects of equal mass shows that the angle
between the paths of the outgoing objects can be measured directly and is found to be
essentially ninety degrees, as predicted. However, in another experimental result inside
nuclear emulsion, a collision between an electron traveling with a speed of nearly 3 x 10 8
m/sec, and an electron initially at rest in the emulsion, the angle between the outgoing
particles is found to be around 19 degrees, much different from the predicted ninety degrees.
3. Conservation of Mass - Conflict with Experiment
• In chemical reactions, such as 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O, it is well substantiated from experiment
that the total mass after the reaction occurs is equal to the total mass before the reaction.
(mass conservation law or Dalton’s Law)
• Whereas in strong nuclear interaction, suppose a proton and a neutron combine to form a
deuteron:
The mass of a proton is: 1.6724 x 10-27 kg;
The mass of a neutron is: 1.6747 x 10-27 kg;
The sum of the masses is: 3.3471 x 10-27 kg.
• When these particles combine, the mass of the resulting deuteron is 3.3431 x 10 -27 kg.
This is less than the total original mass, so that mass is not conserved. Therefore, if the
energies of interaction are high enough, significant departures from the conservation of
mass law can be observed.
• Of the two other conservation laws known in classical physics-conservation of angular
momentum and of charge – experiment shows that whereas the first must be modified
for high energy particles, but the charge conservation law remains generally valid under
all circumstances.
Twentieth Century Physics
Special Theory of Relativity – introduced a new way to view space, time & Simultaneity
General Theory of Relativity
Theory of Quantum Mechanics – considers the dual nature of all matter.
Correspondence Principle
• The correspondence principle states that any new theory which applies to a broader
range of experiments than an old theory, must give the same predicted results as the old
theory in those experiments with which the old theory is in agreement. The new
theory---in our case, the special theory of relativity-must give the same results as
Newton’s laws of motion when applied, for instance, to problems involving motion of
artificial satellites.
• Another way of stating the correspondence principle is: any new theory which contains
an older theory as a special case must give the same predictions as the old theory in the
special cases to which the old theory applies.
Frames of Reference
To say that something is moving always implies a specific frame of reference. A frame of
reference is a part of the description of the motion.
A frame of reference is a space-time coordinate in which we are making observations and
measuring physical quantities. There are two types of reference frames: the inertial and non –
inertial reference frame.
An inertial frame of reference is one in which Newton’s first law of motion holds or
any set of coordinates that can be used to describe a non-accelerating observer. In
such a frame, an object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion continues to
move at constant velocity (constant speed and direction) if no net force acts on it.
Any frame of reference that moves at constant velocity relative to an inertial frame is
itself an inertial frame. Therefore, all inertial frames are equally valid – meaning - No
inertial system is preferred.

A non – inertial frame of reference is a reference frame that is accelerating, either in

linear fashion or rotating around some axis.

The theory of relativity deals with the consequences of the lack of a universal frame of
The Need for Ether – An Absolute Reference System
Since other waves propagate through medium, the wave nature of light suggested that
there existed a propagation medium called the luminiferous ether or just ether.
• Ether had to have such a low density that the planets could move through it without loss
of energy
• It also had to have an elasticity to support the high velocity of light waves
• In Maxwell’s theory the speed of light, in terms of the permeability and permittivity of
free space, was given by

• Thus, the velocity of light between moving systems of the same vacuum medium must
be a constant.
• Therefore, Ether was proposed as an absolute reference system in which the speed of
light was this constant and from which other measurements could be made.
• The Michelson-Morley experiment was an attempt to show the existence of ether.
The Michelson-Morley Experiment
• Albert Michelson (1852–1931) was the first U.S. citizen to receive the Nobel Prize for
Physics (1907), and built an extremely precise device called an interferometer to
measure the minute phase difference between two light waves traveling in mutually
orthogonal directions.
The Michelson-Morley Experiment Setup and Result
1. AC is parallel to the motion of the Earth inducing an “ether wind”.
2. Light from source S is split by mirror A and travels to mirrors C and D in mutually
perpendicular directions.
3. After reflection the beams recombine at A slightly out of phase due to the “ether wind”
as viewed by telescope E.
• Typical interferometer fringe pattern expected when the system is rotated by 90°.
Luminiferous aether or ether (luminiferous meaning
'light-bearing') was the postulated medium for the
propagation of light. It was invoked to explain the
ability of the apparently wave-based light to propagate
through empty space (a vacuum), something that waves
should not be able to do. The assumption of a spatial
plenum (space completely filled with matter) of
luminiferous aether, rather than a spatial vacuum,
provided the theoretical medium that was required by
wave theories of light.
The Analysis
Assuming the Galilean Transformation
• Time duration t1 for light to travel from A to C and back:

• Time duration t2 for light to travel from A to D and back:

• So that the change in time is:

The Analysis (continued)
• Upon rotating the apparatus by 90°, the optical path lengths ℓ1 and ℓ2 are interchanged
producing a different change in time: (note the change in denominators)

• Thus, a time difference between rotations is given by:

• and upon a binomial expansion, assuming v/c << 1, this reduces to

Results and Conclusion
• Using the Earth’s orbital speed as:
V = 3 × 104 m/s
together with
ℓ1 ≈ ℓ2 = 1.2 m
• So that the time difference becomes;

• Although a very small number, it was within the experimental range of measurement for
light waves.
• Michelson noted that he should be able to detect a phase shift of light due to the time
difference between path lengths but found none (NO FRINGE SHIFT WAS
OBSERVED!). Thus, he concluded that the hypothesis of the stationary ether must be
incorrect. After several repeats and refinements with assistance from Edward Morley
(1893-1923), again a null result.
Thus, ether does not seem to exist!
Galilean Transformation
Consider two inertial systems or frames S and S’, as shown in Figure
below:
Assumption:
–The frame S’ moves with a constant velocity v along the x-x’ axes
relative to the frame S.
–Clocks in S and S’ are synchronized, and the origins of S and S’ coincide
at t = t’ = 0.
–A point event, such as a light bulb flash, occurs at the point P.
–The two observer in each frame describe the same event with space–time
coordinates (x, y, z, t) and (x’, y’, z’, t’) accordingly.
–These coordinates are related by the Galilean transformation equations
as:
• These equations constitute what is known as a Galilean transformation of coordinates.
Note that the fourth coordinate, time, is assumed to be the same in both inertial frames.
That is, in classical mechanics, all clocks run at the same rate regardless of their velocity,
so that the time at which an event occurs for an observer in S is the same as the time for
the same event in S’. Consequently, the time interval between two successive events
should be the same for both observers.
Postulates of Special Relativity
Two postulates underlie special relativity.
• The Principle of Relativity: All the laws of physics have the same form in all inertial
reference frames.
• The Constancy of the Speed of Light: The speed of light in vacuum has the same value,
c = 3.00 x 108 m/s, in all inertial frames, regardless of the velocity of the observer or the
velocity of the source emitting the light. The speed of light is a universal constant,
independent of the state of motion of the source or the observer. In another way saying:
The speed of light in free space has the same value in all inertial frames of reference.
Consequences of Special Relativity
The distance between two points and the time interval between two events depend on the
frame of reference in which they are measured. That is, there is no such thing as absolute
length or absolute time in relativity. Furthermore, events at different locations that occur
simultaneously in one frame are not simultaneous in another frame moving uniformly past
the first.
The Lorentz Transformations
To change the space-time coordinates of an event measured in one frame of reference to
those in another frame of reference moving at highspeed relative to the first frame, we use
a set of equations called the Lorentz transformations. These equations calculate how
distance and time change between the two inertial frames.
The special set of linear transformations that:
1. preserve the constancy of the speed of light (c) between inertial observers;
and
2. account for the problem of simultaneity between these observers.
• Suppose we are in an inertial frame of reference S and find the coordinates of some
event that occurs at the time t are x, y, z. An observer located in a different inertial frame
S’ which is moving with respect to S at the constant velocity v will find that the same
event occurs at the time t’ and has the coordinates x’, y', z’. (In order to simplify our
work, we shall assume that v is in the +x direction,
The general form of the transformation that relates the two coordinates is

y' = y
z' = z
• The y and z coordinates are the same in both frames since the relative motion is in the x
direction. Note that the transformation is linear – there are no terms that go proportional
to t2, for example. This is necessary to ensure that the reference frames are inertial – if
there were nonlinear terms, the frames would appear to be accelerating with respect to
one another rather than moving at a relative constant velocity.
→Our goal now is to calculate A, B, C, and D.
We first require that the two coordinate systems must match at the origin:
the coordinate x' = 0 must match x = vt:
 (general Lorentz transformation relating x' to x and t)
(plug in x = vt)
=0 (Setting x' = 0)
solving, we find.
B = – Av
Therefore, the general transformation equation will be

Matching at the origin also requires that x = 0 must match x' = – vt’:
(General transform for x’)
= – Avt (substituting x = 0)
= – vt' (x' = – vt’)
(substituting for the general transform for t’)
= –vDt (substituting x = 0)
Comparing the second and fifth lines, we have
A=D
we can rewrite the Lorentz transformation as

• To determine the remaining two constants, we think about the properties of light pulses
as described by the two coordinate systems.
• First, consider a light pulse that is sent out in the x direction. We shoot this pulse out at t
= 0. The location of the pulse in the unprimed coordinate system is x = ct. This pulse
will also move out parallel to the x' coordinate system since the relative motion of the
two systems is in this direction.
Since the speed of light is the same in all reference frames, its position in the primed
coordinate system is given by x' = ct’:
x' = ct'

(x=ct.)
–Av = c2C
→ C = –Av/c2
The Lorentz transformation now becomes

• To finally determine A, we shoot a light pulse out along the y axis. In the unprimed
coordinate system, the location of the pulse is given by y = ct, x = 0. What is its location
in the primed system? The motion of the frame itself will cause it to move in the x'
direction. The total distance that the pulse moves is ct’.
We therefore must have (x')2+(y')2 = c2(t')2:

(substituting x' = A(x – vt), t’ = A(t – vx/c2) & y' = y)

(since x = 0 & y = ct)
We thus have finally fixed the Lorentz transformation's form:

The inverse of this transformation is quite simple. Observers at rest on the train see the
station moving in the –x direction with speed v. This means that the Lorentz
transformation is inverted by just reversing the direction of v → i.e., we replace v with – v
and replace x' with x and t' with t and vice–versa as:
Transformation of velocity
Suppose something is moving relative to both S and S’. An observer in S measures
its three velocity components to be
,,,
while to an observer in S’ they are
,,,
By differentiating the inverse Lorentz transformation equations for x, y, z, and t, we
obtain
,, ,
And so
Therefore,

Similarly,

If V’x = c, that is, if light is emitted in the moving frame S’ in its direction of motion
relative to S, an observer in frame S will measure the speed

Thus, observers in the car and on the road both find the same value for the speed of light,
as they must.
Example:
1. Spacecraft Alpha is moving at 0.90c with respect to the earth. If spacecraft Beta is to pass
Alpha at a relative speed of 0.50c in the same direction, what speed must Beta have with
respect to the earth?
Solution
According to the Galilean transformation, Beta would need a speed relative to the earth of
0.90c + 0.50c = 1.40c, which we know is impossible. According to Equation for velocity
inverse transformation, however, with Vx’ = 0.50c and V = 0.90c, the required speed is
only

2. Two spaceships A and B are moving in opposite directions, as shown in Figure below. An
observer on Earth measures the speed of A to be 0.750c and the speed of B to be 0.850c.
Find the velocity of B with respect to A
Solution
This problem can be solved by taking the S frame to be attached to spacecraft A, so that v =
0.750c relative to an observer on Earth (the S frame). Spacecraft B can be considered as an
object moving to the left with a velocity V x = – 0.850c relative to the Earth observer. Hence,
the velocity of B with respect to A can be obtained

The negative sign for Vx indicates that spaceship B is moving in the negative x direction as
observed by A. Note that the result is less than c. That is, a body with speed less than c in one
frame of reference must have a speed less than c in any other frame. If the incorrect Galilean
velocity transformation were used in this example, we would find that V x’ = Vx - v = 0.850c -
0.750c = 1.600c, which is greater than the universal limiting speed c.
Example:
3. Imagine a motorcycle rider moving with a speed of 0.800c past a stationary observer. If the
rider tosses a ball in the forward direction with a speed of 0.700c with respect to himself, what
is the speed of the ball as seen by the stationary observer?
Solution
In this situation, the velocity of the motorcycle with respect to the stationary observer is v =
0.800c. The velocity of the ball in the frame of reference of the motorcyclist is V x’ = 0.700c.
Therefore, the velocity, Vx , of the ball relative to the stationary observer is

Example:
4. Imagine two motorcycle gang leaders racing at relativistic speeds along perpendicular paths
from the local pool hall. the situation as seen by a stationary police officer located in frame S,
who observes the following quantity as shown in Table below. How fast does pack leader Beta
recede over Alpha’s right shoulder as seen by Alpha?
Example:
Pack Leader Motion Relative to Stationary Police Officer frame S Vx Vy
Alpha 0.75c 0
Beta 0 – 0.90c
Solution
To get Beta’s speed of recession as seen by Alpha, we take S ’ to move along with Alpha, and we
calculate Vx and Vy for Beta as follow
Note:
The relative speed b/n S and S’ frame in the x direction is
V = 0.75c
The speed of recession of Beta away from Alpha as observed by Alpha is then found to be less
than c as required by relativity:

Exercise:
1. An observer in frame S sees lightning simultaneously strike two points 100 m apart. The first
strike occurs at x1 = y1 = z1 = t1 = 0 and the second at x2 = 100 m, y2 = z2 = t2 = 0 . (a) What are
the coordinates of these two events in a frame S’ moving in the standard configuration at
0.70c relative to S? (b) How far apart are the events in S’? (c) Are the events simultaneous in
S’? If not, what is the difference in time between the events, and which event occurs first?
Exercise:
1. Suppose that an event occurs in inertial frame S with coordinates x = 75 m, y = 18 m, z = 4.0
m at t = 2.0 x s. The inertial frame S’ moves in the +x direction with v = 0.85c. The origins of
S and S’ coincided at t = t’ = 0. (a) What are the coordinates of the event in S’? (b) Use the
inverse transformation on the results of (a) to obtain the original coordinates
2. Two spaceships are approaching each other. (a) If the speed of each is 0.9c relative to Earth,
what is the speed of one relative to the other? (b) If the speed of each relative to Earth is
30,000 m/s (about 100 times the speed of sound), what is the speed of one relative to the
other?
Simultaneity and the Relativity of Time
The concept of simultaneity is not absolute but a relative one, depending on the state of
the observer!
• Two events that are simultaneous in one frame are in general not simultaneous in a
second frame moving with respect to the first. That is, simultaneity is not an absolute
concept, but one that depends on the state of motion of the observer. Or simply, a time
interval measurement depends on the reference frame in which the measurement is made.
Dawit at rest is equidistant from events A and B:

A B
-2m +2m

Dawit “sees” both flashbulbs go off simultaneously.

 Redeit, moving to the right with speed v, observes events A and B in different order:
A B
-2m +2m

Redeit “sees” event B, then A.

• Two events that are simultaneous in one reference frame (K) are not necessarily
simultaneous in another reference frame (K’) moving with respect to the first frame.
• This suggests that each coordinate system has its own observers with “clocks” that are
synchronized…
Synchronization of Clocks
• According the Einstein’s second postulate, no information can be transmitted at a rate
greater than the speed of light in vacuum. Since the speed of light is independent of
inertial frames, it provides a natural (and ideal) way of synchronizing clocks.
The procedure can be described as follows:
Time Dilation and Length Contraction
• The inertial observers in different frames of reference measure different intervals of time
between events, and different spatial separations between events. As we'll see in a
moment, clocks that appear to be moving run slow; rulers that appear to be moving are
shrunk.
Time Dilation
• Measurements of time intervals are affected by relative motion between an observer and
what is observed. As a result, a clock that moves with respect to an observer ticks more
slowly than it does without such motion.
• If someone in a moving spacecraft finds that the time interval between two events in the
spacecraft is t0, we on the ground would find that the same interval has the longer
duration t. The quantity of time t0, which is determined by the range of events that occur
at the same place in an observer’s frame of reference, is called the proper time of the
interval between the events. When witnessed from the ground, the events that mark the
beginning and end of the time interval occur at different places, and in consequence the
duration of the interval appears longer than the proper time. This effect is called time
dilation (to dilate is to become larger).
Let us consider two identical and equality synchronized clocks.
• In each clock, a pulse of light is reflected back and forth between two mirrors L0 apart.
Whenever the light strikes the lower mirror, the clock records a tick. One clock is at rest
in a laboratory on the ground and the other is in a spacecraft that moves at the speed v
relative to the ground.
Note: The mirrors are parallel to the direction of motion of the spacecraft.
• Figure below shows the laboratory clock in operation at a ground. The time interval
between ticks is the proper time t0 and the time needed for the light pulse to travel
between the mirrors at the speed of light c is t0/2. Hence t0/2 = L0/c and thus;
• Figure below shows the moving clock with its mirrors perpendicular to the direction of
motion relative to the ground. The time interval between ticks is t. Because the clock is
moving, the light pulse, as seen from the ground, follows a zigzag path. On its way from
the lower mirror to the upper one in the time t/2, the pulse travels a horizontal distance
of v(t/2) and a total distance of c(t/2). Since L0 is the vertical distance between the
mirrors, using Pythagoras theorem:
• But 2L0/c is the time interval t0 between ticks on the clock on the ground, and so

t0 = time interval on clock at rest relative to an observer – proper time

t = time interval on clock in motion relative to an observer
v = speed of relative motion
c = speed of light
• Because the quantity is always smaller than 1 for a moving object, t is always greater
than t0. The moving clock in the spacecraft appears to tick at a slower rate than the
stationary one on the ground, as seen by an observer on the ground.
• Exactly the same analysis holds for measurements of the clock on the ground by the
pilot of the spacecraft. so, the effect is reciprocal: every observer finds that clocks in
motion relative to him tick more slowly than clocks at rest relative to him.
Length Contraction
• As the same as the time interval between two events depends on the frame of reference
in which it is measured, the measured distance between two points depends on the frame
of reference. The length L of an object in motion with respect to an observer always
appears to the observer to be shorter than its length L0 when it is at rest with respect to
him. This contraction occurs only
in the direction of the relative
motion. The length of an object
measured by someone in a
reference frame that is moving
relative to the object is always
less than the proper length. This
effect is known as length contraction.
• The proper length of an object,
L0, is defined as the length of
the object measured by someone
who is at rest with respect to the
object.
If an object has a proper length L0 when it is measured by an observer at rest with respect
to the object, when it moves with speed v in a direction parallel to its length, its length L is
measured to be shorter according to

Note that the length contraction takes place only along the direction of motion. Lengths
perpendicular to the relative motion are not contracted.
Variations of length contraction (left) and time dilation (right) with
respect to v/c are shown in the figures
Twin Paradox
The Set-up
Twins Mary and Frank at age 30 decide on two career paths: Mary decides to become an
astronaut and to leave on a trip 8 lightyears (ly) from the Earth at a great speed and to
return; Frank decides to reside on the Earth.
The Problem
Upon Mary’s return, Frank reasons that her clocks measuring her age must run slow. As
such, she will return younger. However, Mary claims that it is Frank who is moving and
consequently his clocks must run slow; so, he is waiting younger.
The Paradox
Who is younger upon Mary’s return?
The Resolution
1) Frank’s clock is in an inertial system during the entire trip; however, Mary’s clock is
not. As long as Mary is traveling at constant speed away from Frank, both of them
can argue that the other twin is aging less rapidly.
2) When Mary slows down to turn around, she leaves her original inertial system and
eventually returns in a completely different inertial system.
3) Mary’s claim is no longer valid, because she does not remain in the same inertial
system. There is also no doubt as to who is in the inertial system. Frank feels no
acceleration during Mary’s entire trip, but Mary does.
Example:
1. A certain particle has a lifetime of 1.00 xs when measured at rest. How far does it go before
decaying if its speed is 0.99c when it is created?
The lifetime of the particle is to , and the distance the particle will travel is

2. An observer on a spacecraft moving at 0.700c relative to the earth finds that a car takes 40.0
min to make a trip. How long does the trip take to the driver of the car?
then t = 40 min and to = ?

3. An airplane is flying at 300 m/s (672 mi/h). How much time must elapse before a clock in the
airplane and one on the ground differ by 1.00 s?
Here, t – to = 1 s, then to = ?
Example:

4. The muon is an unstable particle that spontaneously decays into an electron and two
neutrinos. If the number of muons at t = 0 is No, the number at time t is given by N = No et/τ,
where τ is the mean lifetime, equal to 2.2 μs. Suppose the muons move at a speed of 0.95c and
there are 5.0 x 104 muons at t = 0. (a) What is the observed lifetime of the muons? (b) How

τo = the mean lifetime at muon’s frame τ = observed lifetime at another frame

many muons remain after traveling a distance of 3.0 km?
 The time the muon takes to travel 3.0 km = 3.0 x 103 m

Therefore,

5. How fast must a spacecraft travel relative to the earth for each day on the spacecraft to
correspond to 2 days on the earth?

for the time t on the earth to correspond to twice the time t0 elapsed on the ship’s clock,
meaning: t = 2 days and to = a day
Example:
An astronaut is standing in a spacecraft parallel to its direction of motion. An observer on
the earth finds that the spacecraft speed is 0.60c and the astronaut is 1.3 m tall. What is the
astronaut’s height as measured in the spacecraft?
Solution
The astronaut’s contracted length (height) is 1.3 m, and this is what any observer on the earth will measure. an observer in the
spacecraft would measure:

#An astronaut whose height on the earth is exactly 6 ft is lying parallel to the axis of a
spacecraft moving at 0.90c relative to the earth. What is his height as measured by an
observer in the same spacecraft? By an observer on the earth?
Solution
The astronaut’s proper length (height) is 6 ft, and this is what any observer in the spacecraft will measure. an observer on the earth
would measure:
Example:
A meter stick moving in a direction parallel to its length appears to be only 75 cm long to an
observer. What is the speed of the meter stick relative to the observer?
L = 0.75 m and Lo = 1 m

The average lifetime of a pi meson in its own frame of reference is 2.6 x 10-8 s. If the meson
moves with a speed of 0.95c, what is (a) its mean lifetime as measured by an observer on Earth
and (b) the average distance it travels before decaying, as measured by an observer on Earth?
Exercise:
# Two powerless rockets are on a collision course. The rockets are moving with speeds of 0.800c
and 0.600c and are initially 2.52 x 1012 m apart as measured by Liz, an Earth observer, as shown
in Figure below. Both rockets are 50.0 m in length as measured by Liz. (a) What are their
respective proper lengths? (b) What is the length of each rocket as measured by an observer in the
other rocket? (c) According to Liz, how long before the rockets collide? (d) According to rocket 1,
how long before they collide? (e) According to rocket 2, how long before they collide? (f) If both
rocket crews are capable of total evacuation within 90 min (their own time), will there be any
casualties?
The Relativistic Doppler Shift
• We are all familiar with the increase in pitch of a sound when its source approaches us
(or we approach the source) and the decrease in pitch when the source recedes from us
(or we recede from the source). These changes in frequency constitute the doppler
effect.
• The Doppler shift for sound is interesting because motion of the source with respect to
the medium of propagation can be clearly distinguished from motion of the observer.
This means that in the case of sound we can distinguish the “absolute motion” of frames
moving with respect to the air, which is the medium of propagation for sound.
• For instance, successive sound waves emitted by a source moving toward an observer
are closer together than normal because of the advance of the source; because the
separation of the waves is the wavelength of the sound, the corresponding frequency is
higher. The relationship between the source frequency f0 and the observed frequency f is

where V = speed of sound

V0 = speed of observer (+ for motion toward the source, – for motion away from it)
Vs = speed of the source (+ for motion toward the observer, – for motion away from
him)
If the observer is stationary, V0 = 0, and if the source is stationary, Vs = 0.
• The doppler effect in sound varies depending on whether the source, or the observer, or
both are moving. This appears to violate the principle of relativity: all that should count
is the relative motion of source and observer. But sound waves occur only in a material
medium such as air or water, and this medium is itself a frame of reference with respect
to which motions of source and observer are measurable. Hence there is no
contradiction. In the case of light, however, no medium is involved and only relative
motion of source and observer is meaningful. Since light waves require no medium of
propagation and no method exists of distinguishing the motion of the light source from
the motion of the observer. Thus, we expect to find a different formula for the Doppler
shift of light waves, one that is only sensitive to the relative motion of source and
observer and that holds for relative speeds of source and observer approaching c. The
doppler effect in light must therefore differ from that in sound.
Case 1: For the Observer moving perpendicular to a line between him and the light
source: – In this case, we can analyze the doppler effect in light by considering a light
source as a clock that ticks f0 times per second and emits a wave of light with each tick.
The proper time between ticks is t0 = 1/f0, so between one tick and the next, the time
elapses in the reference frame of the observer. The frequency he finds is accordingly
Case 2: For the Observer approaching the light source:
Consider a source of light waves at rest in frame S, emitting waves of frequency f0 and
wavelength λ0 as measured in S. We wish to find the frequency f and wavelength λ of the
light as measured by an observer fixed in frame S’, which is moving with speed v toward
S, as shown in the next Figure a and b.

Figure: (a) A light source fixed in S emits wave crests separated in space by λ0 and moving
outward at speed c as seen from S. (b) What wavelength λ is measured by an observer at
rest in S’? S’ is a frame approaching S at speed v such that the x- and x’-axes coincide.
The following figure shows two successive wave-fronts (color) emitted when the
approaching source is at positions 1 and 2, respectively.

Figure: The view from S’. 1, 2, and 3 (in black) show three successive positions of O
separated in time by t, the period of the light as measured from S’.
If the time between the emission of these wave-fronts as measured in S’ is t, during this
time front 1 will move a distance ct from position 1. During this same time, the light
source will advance a distance vt to the left of position 1, and the distance between
successive wave-fronts will be measured in S’ to be

Because we wish to obtain a formula for f (the frequency measured in S’) in terms of f0
(the frequency measured in S), we use the expression for λ as f =c/λ to obtain
Note that t0 is the proper time; that is, t0 is the time between two events (the
emission of successive wave-fronts) that occur at the same place in S and t is a
dilated time between two events as measured by the observer in S’, thus:

Substituting for t in the previous equation and using f0 = 1/t0 gives

For clarity, this expression is often written

where fobs or f is the frequency measured by an observer approaching a light

source, and fsource or f0 is the frequency as measured in the source’s rest frame.
Case 3: For the Observer receding from the light source:
Now the observer travels the distance vt away from the source between ticks, which means
that the light wave from a given tick takes vt/c longer to reach him than the previous one.
Hence the total time between the arrival of successive waves is

and the observed frequency is

Note: The observed frequency f is lower than the source frequency f0 whether the observer is
moving away from the source or the source is moving away from the observer.
Electricity
Like the speed of light, electric charge is relativistic-ally invariant. A charge whose magnitude
is found to be Q in one frame of reference is also Q in all other frames.
Example:
In particular, a cloud of ionized calcium atoms produces very strong absorption at 394 nm for a
galaxy at rest with respect to the Earth. For the galaxy Hydra, which is 200 million ly away, this
absorption is shifted to 475 nm. How fast is Hydra moving away from the Earth?
Solution:
The givens: λsource = 394 nm and λobs = 475 nm
For an approaching source and observer, fobs > fsource and λobs < λsource because fobs λobs = c = fsource
λsource. In the case of Hydra, λobs > λsource, so Hydra must be receding and we must use

solving for v/c, we find

Therefore, Hydra is receding from us at v = 0.185c = 5.54 x 107 m/s.

Example:
A car moving at 150 km/h (93 mi/h) is approaching a stationary police car whose radar speed
detector operates at a frequency of 15 GHz. What frequency change is found by the speed
detector?

Calculate, for the judge, how fast you were going in miles per hour when you ran the red light
because it appeared Doppler-shifted green to you. Take red light to have a wavelength of 650 nm
and green to have a wavelength of 550 nm.
Example:
(a) How fast and in what direction must galaxy A be moving if an absorption line found at 550 nm
(green) for a stationary galaxy is shifted to 450 nm (blue) for A? (b) How fast and in what
direction is galaxy B moving if it shows the same line shifted to 700 nm (red)?
Relativistic Momentum and The Relativistic Form of Newton’s Laws
The conservation of linear momentum states that when two bodies collide or explosion of
a body, the total momentum remains constant, assuming the bodies are isolated (that is,
they interact only with each other – not act upon by external force). Suppose the collision
is described in a reference frame S in which momentum is conserved. If the velocities of
the colliding bodies are calculated in a second inertial frame S’ using the Lorentz
transformation, and the classical definition of momentum P = mu applied, one finds that
momentum is not conserved in the second reference frame. However, because the laws of
physics are the same in all inertial frames, momentum must be conserved in all frames if it
is conserved in any one. This application of the principle of relativity demands that we
modify the classical definition of momentum.
consider the case of an inelastic collision between two particles of equal mass (m 1 = m2 =
m). Figure a show such a collision for two identical particles approaching each other at
speed v as observed in an inertial reference frame S.
momentum is conserved in S frame as:
Momentum before a collision (Pbefore) = Momentum after a collision (Pafter)

If we use the Lorentz velocity transformation to find v’1, v’2 and V’, and the classical form
of definition for momentum, P = mu, let us check if conservation of momentum holds in
S’ frame;
Checking for momentum conservation in S’, we have

Thus, in the frame S’, the momentum before the collision is not equal to the momentum
after the collision, and momentum is not conserved.
Therefore, in order to conserve the momentum, we have to redefine momentum p of an
object with rest mass m moving with velocity v relative to an inertial system as:

Figure below shows a graph of the magnitude of P as

a function of v/c.
The relativistic form of Newton’s second law is given by the expression

When the net force and the velocity are both along the same direction, let’s say in the x-
axis,

You can see that the relativistic acceleration a of a particle decreases under the action of a
constant force applied in the direction of v, as

From this formula we see that as the velocity approaches c, the acceleration caused by any
finite force approaches zero (decelerate to 0). As a result, constant force does not cause
constant acceleration. Hence, it is impossible to accelerate a particle from rest to a speed
equal to or greater than c. This shows that the speed of light in vacuum represents an
ultimate speed limit.
For the path in most circular accelerators the particle moves in uniform circular motion at
constant speed. Then the net force and velocity are perpendicular, so the force can do no
work on the particle and the kinetic energy and speed remain constant. Thus, the force can
be calculated as:

Recall that if the particle moves in a circle, the net force and acceleration are directed
inward along the radius r, and .
Relativistic Energy
Kinetic energy KE is the work done by a net force in accelerating a particle from rest to
some velocity v. Considering motion in one dimension only, we have:
since v = dx/dt
Where,
Substituting this into the integrand of the equation for KE above, we obtain

Solving the above equation by integration by substitution, we obtain

The constant term mc2, which is independent of the speed, is called the rest energy (E0) of
the particle (the energy associated with the rest mass m).

Note: the rest energy (rest mass) of a particle is invariant.

The term γmc2, which depends on the particle speed, is therefore the sum of the kinetic
and rest energies. We define γmc2 to be the total energy E, that is,
The expression is Einstein’s famous mass–energy equivalence equation, which shows that
mass is a measure of the total energy in all forms.
Let us look into how the total energy, rest energy, and momentum of a particle are related.
Squaring the total energy and momentum results,

Multiplying both sides of the above momentum expression by c2 results

Now we subtract P2c2 from E2:

Therefore,

When the particle is at rest, P = 0, and so we see that E = mc 2. That is, the total energy
equals the rest energy. For the case of particles that have zero mass, such as photons
(massless, charge less particles of light), we set m = 0 in the above equation

Transformations of Energy and Momentum

The transformation formulae for energy and momentum of a particle E’, P’ as observed
from a system of reference moving with speed v along the x, x’ axes relative to an
observer who measures the values E, P for the same particle, are given by
Example:
1. A high-speed interplanetary probe with a mass m = 50,000 kg has been sent toward Pluto at a
speed v= 0.8c. What is its momentum as measured by Mission Control on Earth? If,
preparatory to landing on Pluto, the probe’s speed is reduced to 0.4c, by how much does its
momentum change?
SOLUTION
a. Assuming that the probe travels in a straight line toward Pluto, its momentum along that
direction is given by :

b. When the probe’s speed is reduced, the momentum declines along the relativistic momentum
curve; therefore, the new value is computed from the ratio:

c. The reduced momentum is then given by

Example:
2. An electron (m = 0.511 MeV/c2) and a photon (m = 0) both have momenta of 2.000 MeV/c.
Find the total energy of each.
Solution
a. the electron’s total energy is

b. the photon’s total energy is

3. A stationary body explodes into two fragments each of mass 1.0 kg that move apart at speeds
of 0.6c relative to the original body. Find the mass of the original body.
Solution
The rest energy of the original body must equal the sum of the total energies of the fragments.
Hence
Example:

At what speed does the kinetic energy of a particle equal its rest energy?
Solution
If the kinetic energy KE = Eo = mc2 , then E = 2mc2 and
Example:
Find the momentum of an electron whose kinetic energy equals its rest energy of 511 keV?
Solution
When the kinetic energy of an electron is equal to its rest energy, the total energy is twice the rest
energy, i.e., KE = Eo = me c2 , then E = 2 me c2 and

Since 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J

Alternatively, the speed of electron from the result of the previous example,
Then, the momentum of the electron;
Example:
An electron has a kinetic energy of 0.100 MeV and rest energy of 0.511 MeV. Find its speed
Solution
Total energy
Example:
A particle has a kinetic energy of 62 MeV and a momentum of 335 MeV/c. Find its mass (in
MeV/c2 ) and speed (as a fraction of c).
Solution
From E = mc2 + KE and E2 = m2c4 + P2c2, then

Expanding the binomial

cancelling the m2c4 term, and solving for m,

The particle's speed may be found from many number of ways,

Exercise:
(a) An electron’s speed is doubled from 0.2c to 0.4c. By what ratio does its momentum increase? (b) What happens to the momentum ratio when
the electron’s speed is doubled again from 0.4c to 0.8c?