INSTRUMENT PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS
Performance characteristics
•Performance characteristics of instruments
– Static characteristics
– dynamic characteristics
– Error analysis: measurement are always in
error
Learning objectives
• At the end of this lecture students
should be able to
– Define and explain the major static
characteristics parameters of an
instruments and sensors
– Describe the dynamic characteristic
– Understand the process of
calibration and subsequent
characteristic errors
Performance characteristics of instruments
• A knowledge of the performance
characteristics of an instrument is essential for
selecting the most suitable instrument for
specific measuring jobs.
• Performance characteristics of an instrument
can be classed into two classes.
• Static characteristics
• Dynamic characteristics
Instrument Performance Characteristics
Terms and Definitions:
Static Characteristics: Those that do not
change in time. Examples include: (1) bias,
(2) accuracy, (3) precision, (4) resolution,
and (5) sensitivity,
Dynamic Characteristics: Those that
involve changes with time. Examples
include: (1) response time, and (2) drift
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
1. ACCURACY
– Accuracy is the ability of an
instrument to show the exact
reading.
– Always related to the extent of the
wrong reading/non accuracy.
– Normally shown in percentage error
of the full scale reading percentage.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Example :
A pressure gauge with a range between 0-
1 bar with an accuracy of ± 5% fs (full-
scale) has a maximum error of:
5 x 1 bar = ± 0.05 bar
100
Notes: It is essential to choose an
equipment which has a suitable operating
range.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Example :
A pressure gauge with a range
between 0 - 10 bar is found to have
an error of ± 0.15 bar when
calibrated by the manufacturer.
Calculate :
a. The error percentage of the
gauge.
b. The error percentage when the
reading obtained is 2.0 bar.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Answer :
a. Error Percentage = ± 0.15 bar x 100 = ± 1.5%
10.0 bar
b. Error Percentage = ± 0.15 bar x 100 = ± 7.5
%
2.0 bar
• The gauge is not suitable for use for low range
reading.
• Alternative : use gauge with a suitable range.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Example :
Two pressure gauges (pressure gauge A and B)
have a full scale accuracy of ± 5%. Sensor A
has a range of 0-1 bar and Sensor B 0-10 bar.
Which gauge is more suitable to be used if the
reading is 0.9 bar?
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Answer :
Sensor A :
Equipment max error = ± 5 x 1 bar = ± 0.05 bar
100
Equipment accuracy
@ 0.9 bar ( in %) = ± 0.05 bar x 100 = ± 5.6%
0.9 bar
Sensor B :
Equipment max error = ± 5 x 10 bar = ± 0.5 bar
100
Equipment accuracy
@ 0.9 bar ( in %) = ± 0.5 bar x 100 = ± 55%
0.9 bar
Conclusion :
Sensor A is more suitable to use at a reading of 0.9
bar because the error percentage (± 5.6%) is
smaller compared to the percentage error of Sensor
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
2. PRECISION
• Defined as the capability of an
instrument to show the same reading
when used each time (reproducibility
of the instrument).
• An equipment which is precise is not
necessarily accurate.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Example : XXX
XXX
X : result
Centre circle : true value
Low accuracy, high precision
XXX
XXXX
XXX
X X
High accuracy, high precision x x
Low accuracy, low precision
Precision and Accuracy
Low Precision High Precision
Low
Accuracy
High
Accuracy
Accuracy vs Precision
High Precision, but low
accuracy.
There is a systematic error.
Accuracy vs Precision (Cont)
High accuracy means that the mean is close to
the true value, while high precision means
that the standard deviation σ is small.
σ = means spread -> precision μ = is the mean -> accuracy
3. TOLERANCE
• Is closely related to accuracy
• Sometimes when you are making a measurement, you are
given an amount of tolerance that is acceptable. Tolerance
is an allowance for error.
• You may be given a measurement of 4.5 centimetres with
a tolerance of ± .2 centimetres. The ± .2 centimetres is
read as plus or minus .2 centimetres.
• Example: Within what range of measurement should you
be if you are given a measurement of 46.4 centimetres
with a tolerance of ± .05? 46.4 cm - .05 = 46.35 cm 46.4
cm + .05 = 46.45 cm The range of measurement should
be within 46.35 cm and 46.45 cm.
4. RANGE OF SPAN
• Defined as the range of reading
between minimum value and
maximum value for the
measurement of an instrument.
• Has a positive value e.g..:
The range of span of an instrument
which has a reading range of –
100°C to 100 °C is 200 °C.
5. BIAS
• Constant error which occurs during the
measurement of an instrument.
• This error is usually rectified through calibration.
Example :
A weighing scale always gives a bias reading.
This equipment always gives a reading of 1 kg
even without any load applied. Therefore, if A
with a weight of 70 kg weighs himself, the given
reading would be 71 kg. This would indicate that
there is a constant bias of 1 kg to be corrected.
6. LINEARITY
• Linearity is defined as the ability of an
instrument to reproduce its input linearly.
• Linearity is simply a measure of the
maximum deviation of the calibration
points from the ideal straight line.
• Linearity is defined as, linearity=Maximum
deviation of o/p from idealized straight line
∕ Actual readings
Linearity
Output
Readings
Measured Quantity
7. SENSIVITY
• Defined as the ratio of change in output
towards the change in input at a steady state
condition.
• Sensitivity (K) = Δθο
Δθi
Δθο : change in output; Δθi : change in input
Example 1:
The resistance value of a Platinum Resistance
Thermometer changes when the temperature
increases. Therefore, the unit of sensitivity
for this equipment is Ohm/°C.
Sensitivity
Most sensitive
Less sensitive
Variation of the physical variables
Classification of Drift
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Example 2:
Pressure sensor A with a value of 2
bar caused a deviation of 10
degrees. Therefore, the sensitivity
of the equipment is 5 degrees/bar.
• Sensitivity of the whole system is
(k) = k1 x k2 x k3 x .. x kn
θi k1 k2 k3 θo
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Example:
Consider a measuring system consisting of a transducer,
amplifier and a recorder, with sensitivity for each equipment
given below:
Transducer sensitivity 0.2 mV/°C
Amplifier gain 2.0 V/mV
Recorder sensitivity 5.0 mV/V
Sensitivity of the whole system is (k) = k1 x k2 x k3 x .. x kn
θi k1 k2 k3 θo
Therefore,
Sensitivity of the whole system:
(k) = k1 x k2 x k3
k = 0.2 mV x 2.0 V x 5.0 mV
°C mV V
k = 2.0 mV/°C
Example :
The output of a platinum resistance
thermometer (RTD) is as follows:
Input(°C) Output(Ohm)
0 0
100 200
200 400
300 600
400 800
Calculate the sensitivity of the equipment.
swer :
raw an input versus output graph. From
hat graph, the sensitivity is the slope of th
raph.
= Δθο graph = (400-200) ohm = 2
hm/°C Δθi slope (200-100) °C
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
8. DEAD SPACE / DEAD BAND
Output
Reading
- +
Measured
Variables
Dead Space
• Defined as the range of input reading when
there is no change in output (unresponsive
system).
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
9. RESOLUTION
• The smallest change in input reading that
can be traced accurately.
• Given in the form ‘% of full scale (% fs)’.
• Available in digital instrumentation.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
10. THRESHOLD
• When the reading of an input is increased
from zero, the input reading will reach a
certain value before change occurs in the
output.
• The minimum limit of the input reading is
‘threshold’.
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
• Explains the behaviour system of
instruments system when the input
signal is changed.
• Depends on a few standard input
signals such as ‘step input’, ‘ramp
input’ dan ‘sine-wave input’.
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
Step Input
• Sudden change in input signal from
steady state.
• The output signal for this kind of input
is known as ‘transient response’.
Input
Time
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
Ramp Input
• The signal changes linearly.
• The output signal for ramp input
is ‘ramp response’.
Input
Time
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
Sine-wave Input
• The signal is harmonic.
• The output signal is ‘frequency
response’.
Input
Time
Response time
One would like to have a
measurement system with fast
response.
In other words, the effect of the
measurement system on the
measurement should be as small as
possible.
EXAMPLE OF DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS
Response from a 2nd order instrument:
Output
100%
90%
10%
tr
Time
EXAMPLE OF DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS
Response from a 2nd order instrument:
1. Rise Time ( tr )
• Time taken for the output to rise from
10% to 90 % of the steady state
value.
2. Settling time (ts)
• Time taken for output to reach a
steady state value.
Dynamic Characteristics of
Measurement System
• Speed of response
• Measuring lag
• Fidelity
• Dynamic error
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.
• SPEED OF RESPONSE :It is defined as the
rapidity with which a measurement system
responds to changes in measured quantity.
It is one of the dynamic characteristics of a
measurement system.
• FIDELITY: It is defined as the degree to
which a measurement system indicates
changes in the measured quantity without
any dynamic error.
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Dynamic Error
• It is the difference between the true value
of the quantity changing with time and the
value indicated by the measurement
system if no static error is assumed. It is
also called measurement error.
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Measuring Lag
• It is the retardation delay in the response
of a measurement system to changes in
the measured quantity. It is of 2 types:
• Retardation type: The response begins
immediately after a change in measured
quantity has occurred.
• Time delay: The response of the
measurement system begins after a dead
zone after the application of the input.
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