Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 1st Ed.

Nivaldo Tro

Chapter 2
Atoms and
Elements

Roy Kennedy
Massachusetts Bay Community
College
Wellesley Hills,
2008, Prentice Hall MA
 Scanning Tunneling Microscope
• Gerd Bennig and Heinrich
Rohrer found that as you pass
a sharp metal tip over a flat
metal surface, the amount of
current that flowed varied
with distance between the tip
and the surface
• measuring this “tunneling”
current allowed them to scan
the surface on an atomic scale
– essentially taking pictures of
atoms on the surface
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 2
Operation of a STM

3
 Scanning Tunneling Microscope
• later scientists found
that not only can you
see the atoms on the
surface, but the
instrument allows
you to move
individual atoms
across the surface
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 4
 Early Philosophy of Matter
• Some philosophers believed that matter had an
ultimate, tiny, indivisible particle
 Leucippus and Democritus
• Other philosophers believed that matter was infinitely
divisible
 Plato and Aristotle
• Since there was no experimental way of proving who
was correct, the best debater was the person assumed
correct, i.e., Aristotle

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 5

 Scientific Revolution
• in the late 16th century, the scientific approach
to understanding nature became established
• for the next 150+ years, observations about
nature were made that could not easily be
explained by the infinitely divisible matter
concept

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 6

 Law of Conservation of Mass
• in a chemical reaction, matter
is neither created nor
destroyed
• total mass of the materials
you have before the reaction
must equal the total mass of
the materials you have at the
Antoine Lavoisier
end
 1743-1794
total mass of reactants = total
mass of products
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 7
 Reaction of Sodium with Chlorine to
Make Sodium Chloride
• the mass of sodium and chlorine used is determined by the
number of atoms that combine
• since only whole atoms combine and atoms are not changed or
destroyed in the process, the mass of sodium chloride made
must equal the total mass of sodium and chlorine atoms that
combine together

7.7 g Na + 11.9 g Cl2  19.6 g NaCl

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 8
 Law of Definite Proportions
• All samples of a given
compound, regardless of
their source or how they Joseph Proust
were prepared, have the 1754-1826
same proportions of their
constituent elements

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 9

 Proportions in Sodium Chloride
a 100.0 g sample of sodium mass of Cl 60.7 g
chloride contains 39.3 g of sodium  1.54
and 60.7 g of chlorine mass of Na 39.3 g

a 200.0 g sample of sodium mass of Cl 121.4 g

chloride contains 78.6 g of sodium  1.54
and 121.4 g of chlorine mass of Na 78.6 g

a 58.44 g sample of sodium mass of Cl 35.44 g

chloride contains 22.99 g of sodium  1.541
and 35.44 g of chlorine mass of Na 22.99 g

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 10

 Law of Multiple Proportions
• When two elements,
(call them A and B),
form two different
compounds, the
masses of B that
combine with 1 g of A John Dalton
can be expressed as a 1766-1844
ratio of small, whole
numbers
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 11
 Oxides of Carbon
• carbon combines with oxygen to form
two different compounds, carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide
• carbon monoxide contains 1.33 g of
oxygen for every 1.00 g of carbon
• carbon dioxide contains 2.67 g of
oxygen for every 1.00 g of carbon
• since there are twice as many oxygen
atoms per carbon atom in carbon
dioxide than in carbon monoxide, the
oxygen mass ratio should be 2
mass of oxygen that combines with 1 g of carbon in carbon dioxide 2.67 g
 2
mass of oxygen that combines with 1 g of carbon in carbon monoxide 1.33 g
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 12
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• Dalton proposed a theory of matter based on it having
ultimate, indivisible particles to explain these laws
1) Each element is composed of tiny, indestructible
particles called atoms
2) All atoms of a given element has the same mass and
other properties that distinguish them from atoms of
other elements
3) Atoms combine in simple, whole-number ratios to
form molecules of compounds
4) In a chemical reaction, atoms of one element cannot
change into atoms of another element
 they simply rearrange the way they are attached
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 13
 Some Notes on Charge
• Two kinds of charge called
+ and –
• Opposite charges attract
 + attracted to –
• Like charges repel
 + repels +
 – repels –
• To be neutral, something
must have no charge or
equal amounts of opposite
charges
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 14
 Cathode Ray Tubes
• glass tube containing metal electrodes
from which almost all the air has been
evacuated
• when connected to a high voltage power
supply, a glowing area is seen emanating
from the cathode
anode
cathode

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 15

 J.J. Thomson
• believed that the cathode ray was composed of
tiny particles with an electrical charge
• designed an experiment to demonstrate that
there were particles by measuring the amount of
force it takes to deflect their path a given
amount
like measuring the amount of force it takes to make
a car turn
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 16
 Thomson’s Experiment
investigate the effect of placing an electric field around tube
(1) charged matter is attracted to an electric field
(2) light’s path is not deflected by an electric field

+++++++++++ anode
cathode
(-) (+)

------------
- -
Power Supply
+
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 17
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 18
 Thomson’s Results
• the cathode rays are made of tiny particles
• these particles have a negative charge
 because the beam always deflected toward the + plate
• the amount of deflection was related to two factors, the
charge and mass of the particles
• every material tested contained these same particles
• the charge/mass of these particles was -1.76 x 108 C/g
 the charge/mass of the hydrogen ion is +9.58 x 104 C/g

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 19

 Thomson’s Conclusions
• if the particle has the same amount of charge as a
hydrogen ion, then it must have a mass almost 2000x
smaller than hydrogen atoms!
 later experiments by Millikan showed that the particle did
have the same amount of charge as the hydrogen ion
• the only way for this to be true is if these particles were
pieces of atoms
 apparently, the atom is not unbreakable
• Thomson believed that these particles were therefore
the ultimate building blocks of matter
• these cathode ray particles became known as electrons
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 20
 Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 21

 Electrons
• electrons are particles found in all atoms
• cathode rays are streams of electrons
• the electron has a charge of -1.60 x 10 19 C
• the electron has a mass of 9.1 x 10 -28 g

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 22

 A New Theory of the Atom
• since the atom is no longer indivisible,
Thomson must propose a new model of the
atom to replace the first statement in Dalton’s
Atomic Theory
rest of Dalton’s theory still valid at this point
• Thomson proposes that instead of being a hard,
marble-like unbreakable sphere, the way Dalton
described it, that it actually had an inner
structure
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 23
 Thomson’s Plum Pudding Atom
• the structure of the atom contains many
negatively charged electrons
• these electrons are held in the atom by
their attraction for a positively charged
electric field within the atom
 there had to be a source of positive charge
because the atom is neutral
 Thomson assumed there were no
positively charged pieces because none
showed up in the cathode ray experiment
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 24
 Predictions of the Plum Pudding Atom

• the mass of the atom is due to the mass of the

electrons within it
electrons are the only particles in Plum Pudding
atoms
• the atom is mostly empty space
cannot have a bunch of negatively charged particles
near each other as they would repel

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 25

 Radioactivity

• in the late 1800s, Henri Becquerel and Marie Curie

discovered that certain elements would constantly emit
small, energetic particles and rays
• these energetic particles could penetrate matter
• Ernest Rutherford discovered that there were three
different kinds of emissions
 alpha, , particles with a mass 4x H atom and + charge
 beta, , particles with a mass ~1/2000th H atom and – charge
 gamma, , rays that are energy rays, not particles

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 26

 Rutherford’s Experiment
• How can you prove something is empty?
• put something through it
use large target atoms
use very thin sheets of target so do not absorb “bullet”
use very small particle as bullet with very high energy
but not so small that electrons will affect it

• bullet = alpha particles, target atoms = gold foil

  particles have a mass of 4 amu & charge of +2 c.u.
 gold has a mass of 197 amu & is very malleable
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 27
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 28
 Rutherford’s Experiment
Alpha Particles
Radioactive Striking Screen
Sample

Lead Box Fluorescent

Gold Screen
Foil
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 29
 Rutherford’s Results
• Over 98% of the  particles went straight
through
• About 2% of the  particles went through
but were deflected by large angles
• About 0.01% of the  particles bounced off
the gold foil
“...as if you fired a 15” cannon shell at a piece
of tissue paper and it came back and hit you.”

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 30

 Rutherford’s Conclusions
• Atom mostly empty space
because almost all the particles went straight through
• Atom contains a dense particle that was small in
volume compared to the atom but large in mass
because of the few particles that bounced back
• This dense particle was positively charged
because of the large deflections of some of the
particles

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 31

 Plum Pudding
Atom
• •
if atom was like
• • • •
• •
•
•
a plum pudding,
•
• • •
all the  particles
• • • should go
• •
• •
• straight through
a few of the
 particles Nuclear Atom
do not go through
. most  particles
. go straight through

.
some  particles
go through, but are deflected
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 32
 Rutherford’s Interpretation –
the Nuclear Model
1) The atom contains a tiny dense center called the
nucleus
 the amount of space taken by the nucleus is only about
1/10 trillionth the volume of the atom
2) The nucleus has essentially the entire mass of the atom
 the electrons weigh so little they give practically no mass to
the atom
3) The nucleus is positively charged
 the amount of positive charge balances the negative charge
of the electrons
4) The electrons are dispersed in the empty space of the
atom surrounding the nucleus
33
 Structure of the Atom
• Rutherford proposed that the nucleus had a
particle that had the same amount of
charge as an electron but opposite sign
 based on measurements of the nuclear charge of
the elements
• these particles are called protons
 charge = +1.60 x 1019 C
 mass = 1.67262 x 10-24 g
• since protons and electrons have the same
amount of charge, for the atom to be neutral
there must be equal numbers of protons
and electrons
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 34
 Relative Mass and Charge
• it is sometimes easier to compare things to each other rather than
to an outside standard
• when you do this, the scale of comparison is called a relative scale
• we generally talk about the size of charge on atoms by comparing
it to the amount of charge on an electron, which we call -1 charge
units
 proton has a charge of +1cu
 protons and electrons have equal amounts of charge, but opposite signs
• we generally talk about the mass of atoms by comparing it to 1/12th
the mass of a carbon atom with 6 protons and 6 neutrons, which
we call 1 atomic mass unit
 protons have a mass of 1amu
 electrons have a mass of 0.00055 amu, which is generally too small to be
relevant
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 35
 Some Problems
• How could beryllium have 4 protons stuck together
in the nucleus?
 shouldn’t they repel each other?
• If a beryllium atom has 4 protons, then it should
weigh 4 amu; but it actually weighs 9.01 amu!
Where is the extra mass coming from?
 each proton weighs 1 amu
 remember, the electron’s mass is only about 0.00055 amu
and Be has only 4 electrons – it can’t account for the extra
5 amu of mass

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 36

 There Must Be Something Else There!
• to answer these questions, Rutherford
proposed that there was another particle in
the nucleus – it is called a neutron
• neutrons have no charge and a mass of 1 amu
mass = 1.67493 x 10-24 g
slightly heavier than a proton
no charge

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 37

 Subatomic Mass Mass Location Charge Symbol
Particle g amu in atom
Proton 1.67262 1.00727 nucleus +1 p, p+, H+
x 10-24
Electron 0.00091 0.00055 empty -1 e, e-
x 10-24 space
Neutron 1.67493 1.00866 nucleus 0 n, n0
x 10-24

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 38

 Elements
• each element has a unique number of protons
in its nucleus
• the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom is called the atomic number
the elements are arranged on the Periodic Table
in order of their atomic numbers
• each element has a unique name and symbol
symbol either one or two letters
one capital letter or one capital letter + one lowercase
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 39
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 40
 The Periodic Table of Elements

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 41

 X
Mass Number Charge

Atomic Number
(Proton number)

Atomic Number (Proton number) = electron

number + charge
Mass Number= Proton number + notron
22.10.25 number
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 Practice – Complete the table

27
13 Al

43
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e
 Practice – Complete the table

13
6C
96
42 Mo
27
13 Al
133
55 Cs

44
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e
 Structure of the Nucleus
• Soddy discovered that the same element could
have atoms with different masses, which he
called isotopes
there are 2 isotopes of chlorine found in nature, one
that has a mass of about 35 amu and another that
weighs about 37 amu
• The observed mass is a weighted average of the
weights of all the naturally occurring atoms
the percentage of an element that is 1 isotope is
called the isotope’s natural abundance
the atomic mass of chlorine is 35.45 amu
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 45
 Isotopes
• all isotopes of an element are chemically identical
undergo the exact same chemical reactions
• all isotopes of an element have the same number
of protons
• isotopes of an element have different masses
• isotopes of an element have different numbers of
neutrons
• isotopes are identified by their mass numbers
protons + neutrons
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 46
 Isotopes
• Atomic Number
 Number of protons
Z
• Mass Number
 Protons + Neutrons
 Whole number
A
• Abundance = relative amount
found in a sample

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 47

 İzotoplar
Izotop Proton Elektron Nötron Çekirdek
Hidrojen–1
(protium) 1 1 0
Hidrojen-2
(döteryum) 1 1 1

Hidrojen-3 1 1 2
(trityum)

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 Neon

Percent
Number of Number of A, Mass Natural
Symbol Protons Neutrons Number Abundance

Ne-20 or 20
10 Ne 10 10 20 90.48%

21 Ne
Ne-21 or 10 10 11 21 0.27%

Ne-22 or 22
10 Ne 10 12 22 9.25%

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 49

 Atomik kütle birimi (a.k.b.)
Isotop Symbol Nucleus natural
Content abundancy %
Karbon-12 C
12
6 proton 98.89%
6 nötron
Karbon-13 C
13
6 proton 1.11%
7 nötron
Karbon-14 C
14
6 proton <0.01%
8 nötron

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 Ortalama Atom Kütlesi
Ortalama atom kütlesini hesaplamak için her bir izotopun
kütlesi doğada bulunma yüzdeleri ile çarpılarak toplanır ve
ortalama atom kütlesi hesaplanır. Doğada bulunan bütün
elementlerini izotoplarının kütleleri C-12 izotopunun kütlesi
referans alınarak kütle spektrometresi kullanılarak tespit
edilebilmektedir. Buna göre;

C-12 = 12 a.k.b.;
C-13 = 13,00335 a.k.b.
Ortalama atomik kütle = (12 a.k.b. x 0,9889) + (13,00335
a.k.b.x 0,0111) = 12,011 ak.b. ( 1 karbon atomunun
ortalama kütlesi)
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 Example 2.5: If copper is 69.17% Cu-63 with a mass of 62.9396
amu and the rest Cu-65 with a mass of 64.9278 amu, find
copper’s atomic mass
Given: Cu-63 = 69.17%, 62.9396 amu
Cu-65 = 100-69.17%, 64.9278 amu
Find: atomic mass, amu
Conceptual Plan:
Relationships: isotope masses, avg. atomic mass
isotope fractions

Solution:

Check: the average is between the two masses,

52
closer to the major isotope
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e
 Example 2.3b How many protons, electrons,
52
and neutrons are in an atom of 24 Cr ?
52
Given: 24 Cr therefore A = 52, Z = 24
Find: # p+, # e-, # n0
Concept Plan: symbol atomic # p+ # e-
number
atomic & mass
symbol # n0
numbers
Relationships: in neutral atom, # p+ = # e-
mass number = # p+ + # n0
Solution: Z = 24 = # p+ A = Z + # n0
# e- = # p+ = 24 52 = 24 + # n0
28 = # n0

Check: for most stable isotopes, n0 > p+

 Reacting Atoms
• when elements undergo chemical reactions, the reacting
elements do not turn into other elements
 Statement 4 of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• this requires that all the atoms present when you start
the reaction will still be there after the reaction
• since the number of protons determines the kind of
element, the number of protons in the atom does not
change in a chemical reaction
• however, many reactions involve transferring electrons
from one atom to another

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 54

 Charged Atoms
• when atoms gain or lose electrons, they acquire a charge
• charged particles are called ions
• when atoms gain electrons, they become negatively
charged ions, called anions
• when atoms lose electrons, they become positively
charged ions, called cations
• ions behave much differently than the neutral atom
 e.g., The metal sodium, made of neutral Na atoms, is highly
reactive and quite unstable. However, the sodium cations, Na+,
found in table salt are very nonreactive and stable
• since materials like table salt are neutral, there must be
equal amounts of charge from cations and anions in them
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 55
 Charged Atoms
• When atoms gain or lose electrons, they
acquire a charge
• Charged atoms or groups of atoms are
called ions
• When atoms gain electrons, they become
negatively charged ions, called anions
• When atoms lose electrons, they become
positively charged ions, called cations
56
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e
 Practice – Complete the table

Al3 

57
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e
 Practice – Complete the table

2
S
Mg2 
Al3 

Br

58
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e
 Atomic Structures of Ions
• Nonmetals form anions
• For each negative charge, the ion has 1 more electron
than the neutral atom
 F = 9 p+ and 9 e-, F─ = 9 p+ and 10 e-
 P = 15 p+ and 15 e-, P3─ = 15 p+ and 18 e-
• Anions are named by changing the ending of the name
to -ide
fluorine F + 1e-  F─ fluoride ion
oxygen O + 2e-  O2─ oxide ion

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 59

 Atomic Structures of Ions
• Metals form cations
• For each positive charge, the ion has 1 less
electron than the neutral atom
Na atom = 11 p+ and 11 e-, Na+ ion = 11 p+ and 10 e-
Ca atom = 20 p+ and 20 e-, Ca2+ ion = 20 p+ and 18 e-
• Cations are named the same as the metal
sodium Na  Na+ + 1e- sodium ion
calcium Ca  Ca2+ + 2e- calcium ion

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 60

 Mendeleev
• order elements by atomic mass
• saw a repeating pattern of properties
• Periodic Law – When the elements are arranged in
order of increasing atomic mass, certain sets of
properties recur periodically
• put elements with similar properties in the same
column
• used pattern to predict properties of undiscovered
elements
• where atomic mass order did not fit other properties,
he re-ordered by other properties
 Te & I
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 61
 Periodic Pattern

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 62

 Periodic Pattern
nm H2O
a/b
H
1 H2

m Li2O m/nm BeOnm B2O3 nm CO2 nm N2O5 nm O2 nm

Li b Be a/b B a C a N a O F
7 LiH 9 BeH2 11 ( BH3)n 12 CH4 14 NH3 16 H2O 19 HF
m Na2O m MgO m Al2O3 nm/m SiO2nm P4O10nm SO3 nm Cl2O7
Na b Mg b Al a/b Si a P a S a Cl a
23 NaH24 MgH2 27 (AlH3) 28 SiH4 31 PH3 32 H2S 35.5 HCl

m = metal, nm = nonmetal, m/nm = metalloid

a = acidic oxide, b = basic oxide, a/b = amphoteric oxide

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 63

Mendeleev’s Predictions for Ekasilicon (Germanium)
Property Silicon’s Tin’s Predicted Measured
Props Props Value Value
Atomic 28 118 72 72.6
Mass
Color Grey White Grey Grey-
metal White
Density 2.32 7.28 5.5 5.4
Reaction Resists Reacts Resists Resists
w/ Acid & Acid, Acid, Both Both
Base Reacts Resists
Base Base
Oxide SiO2 SnO2 Eks1O2 GeO2
64
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 65
 Metals
• solids at room temperature, except Hg
• reflective surface
 shiny
• conduct heat
• conduct electricity
• malleable
 can be shaped
• ductile
 drawn or pulled into wires
• lose electrons and form cations in reactions
• about 75% of the elements are metals
• lower left on the table
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 66
 Sulfur, S(s)
Nonmetals
• found in all 3 states
• poor conductors of heat
• poor conductors of electricity Bromine, Br2(l)

• solids are brittle

• gain electrons in reactions to
become anions
Chlorine, Cl2(l)
• upper right on the table
except H

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 67

 Metalloids
• show some
properties of metals
and some of
nonmetals
• also known as
semiconductors Properties of Silicon
shiny
conducts electricity
does not conduct heat well
brittle
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 68
Patterns in Metallic Character
= Metal
= Metalloid
= Nonmetal
 The Modern Periodic Table
• Elements with similar chemical and
physical properties are in the same column
• columns are called Groups or Families
designated by a number and letter at top
• rows are called Periods
• each period shows the pattern of properties
repeated in the next period

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 70

 The Modern Periodic Table
• Main Group = Representative Elements = “A”
groups
• Transition Elements = “B” groups
all metals
• Bottom Rows = Inner Transition Elements =
Rare Earth Elements
metals
really belong in Period 6 & 7

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 71

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 72
 = Alkali Metals = Halogens
= Alkali Earth Metals = Lanthanides
= Noble Gases = Actinides

= Transition Metals

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 73

 Important Groups - Hydrogen
• nonmetal
• colorless, diatomic gas
 very low melting point and density
• reacts with nonmetals to form molecular
compounds
 HCl is acidic gas
 H2O is a liquid
• reacts with metals to form hydrides
 metal hydrides react with water to form H2
• HX dissolves in water to form acids
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 74
 Important Groups - Alkali Metals
• Group IA = Alkali Metals
• hydrogen usually placed here, though
it doesn’t belong
• soft, low melting points, low density
• flame tests  Li = red, Na = yellow, lithium
K = violet
• very reactive, never find sodium
uncombined in nature
• tend to form water-soluble potassium
compounds, therefore
crystallized from seawater then
molten salt electrolyzed rubidium
colorless solutions
• react with water to form basic cesium
(alkaline) solutions and H2
2 Na + 2 H2O  2 NaOH + H2
75
releases a lot of heat
 Important Groups - Alkali Earth Metals
• Group IIA = Alkali Earth Metals
• harder, higher melting, and denser
than alkali metals beryllium
 Mg alloys used as structural
materials
• flame tests  Ca = red, Sr = red, Ba =magnesium
yellow-green
• reactive, but less than corresponding calcium
alkali metal
• form stable, insoluble oxides from
which they are normally extracted strontium
• oxides are basic = alkaline earth
• reactivity with water to form H2  Be barium
= none; Mg = steam; Ca, Sr, Ba =
cold water
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 76
 Important Groups - Halogens
• Group VIIA = Halogens
• nonmetals
• F2 and Cl2 gases; Br2 liquid; I2 fluorine
solid
• all diatomic chlorine
• very reactive
• Cl2, Br2 react slowly with water bromine
Br2 + H2O  HBr + HOBr
• react with metals to form ionic iodine
compounds
• HX all acids astatine
 HF weak < HCl < HBr < HI

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 77

 Important Groups - Noble Gases
• Group VIIIA = Noble Gases
helium
• all gases at room temperature
 very low melting and boiling
points neon

• very unreactive, practically

inert argon

• very hard to remove electron

from or give an electron to krypton

xenon

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 78

 Ion Charge and the Periodic Table
• the charge on an ion can often be
determined from an element’s position on
the Periodic Table
• metals are always positively charged ions,
nonmetals are negatively charged ions
• for many main group metals, the charge =
the group number
• for nonmetals, the charge = the group
number - 8
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 79
 1A

2A 3A 5A 6A 7A

Li+1 N-3 O-2 F-1

Na+1Mg+2 Al+3 S-2 Cl-1

K+1 Ca+2 Se-2 Br-1

Rb+1 Sr+2 Te-2 I-1

Cs+1 Ba+2

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 80

 Atomic Mass
• we previously learned that not all atoms of an element
have the same mass
 isotopes
• we generally use the average mass of all an element’s
atoms found in a sample in calculations
 however the average must take into account the abundance of
each isotope in the sample
• we call the average mass the atomic mass
Atomic Mass  fractional abundance of isotope n mass of isotope n

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 81

 Mass Spectrometry
• masses and abundances of isotopes are measured with
a mass spectrometer
• atoms or molecules are ionized, then accelerated down
a tube
 some molecules into fragments are broken during the
ionization process
 these fragments can be used to help determine the structure
of the molecule
• their path is bent by a magnetic field, separating them
by mass
 similar to Thomson’s Cathode Ray Experiment

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 82

 Mass Spectrum
• a mass spectrum is a graph
that gives the relative mass
and relative abundance of
each particle
• relative mass of the particle is
plotted in the x-axis
• relative abundance of the
particle is plotted in the y-
axis

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 83

 Mass Spectrometer

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 84

Example 2.5 If copper is 69.17% Cu-63 with a mass of 62.9396 amu
and the rest Cu-65 with a mass of 64.9278 amu, find copper’s atomic
mass
Given: Cu-63 = 69.17%, 62.9396 amu
Cu-65 = 100-69.17%, 64.9278 amu
Find: atomic mass, amu
Concept Plan:
isotope masses, avg. atomic mass
Relationships:
isotope fractions
Atomic Mass  fractional abundance of isotope n mass of isotope n

Solution:
Atomic Mass 0.6917 62.9396 amu 
 0.308364.9278 amu 
Atomic Mass 63.5525 63.55 amu
Check: the average is between the two masses,
closer to the major isotope
 Counting Atoms by Moles
• If we can find the mass of a particular number
of atoms, we can use this information to convert
the mass of an element sample into the number
of atoms in the sample.
• The number of atoms we will use is 6.022 x 10 23
and we call this a mole
 1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 things
 Like 1 dozen = 12 things

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 86

 Chemical Packages - Moles
• mole = number of particles equal to the
number of atoms in 12 g of C-12
 1 atom of C-12 weighs exactly 12 amu
 1 mole of C-12 weighs exactly 12 g
• The number of particles in 1 mole is called
Avogadro’s Number = 6.0221421 x 1023
 1 mole of C atoms weighs 12.01 g and has
6.022 x 1023 atoms
 the average mass of a C atom is 12.01 amu

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 87

 Example 2.6 Calculate the number of atoms
in 2.45 mol of copper
Given: 2.45 mol Cu
Find: atoms Cu
Concept Plan: mol Cu atoms Cu
6.022 10 23 atoms
1 mol

Relationships: 1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 atoms

Solution: 6.022 10 23 atoms
2.45 mol Cu 
1 mol
1.48 10 24 atoms Cu
Check: since atoms are small, the large number of atoms
makes sense
 Relationship Between
Moles and Mass
• The mass of one mole of atoms is called the
molar mass
• The molar mass of an element, in grams, is
numerically equal to the element’s atomic
mass, in amu
• The lighter the atom, the less a mole weighs
• The lighter the atom, the more atoms there are
in 1 g
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 89
 Mole and Mass Relationships
Weight of Pieces in Weight of
Substance
1 atom 1 mole 1 mole
hydrogen 1.008 amu 6.022 x 1023 atoms 1.008 g
carbon 12.01 amu 6.022 x 1023 atoms 12.01 g
oxygen 16.00 amu 6.022 x 1023 atoms 16.00 g
sulfur 32.06 amu 6.022 x 1023 atoms 32.06 g
calcium 40.08 amu 6.022 x 1023 atoms 40.08 g
chlorine 35.45 amu 6.022 x 1023 atoms 35.45 g
copper 63.55 amu 6.022 x 1023 atoms 63.55 g

1 mole 1 mole
sulfur carbon
32.06 g 12.01 g
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 90
 Example 2.7 Calculate the moles of carbon
in 0.0265 g of pencil lead
Given: 0.0265 g C
Find: mol C
Concept Plan: gC mol C
1 mol
12.01 g
Relationships: 1 mol C = 12.01 g
Solution: 1 mol
0.0265 g C 
12.01 g
2.2110-3 mol C
Check: since the given amount is much less than 1 mol C,
the number makes sense
 Example 2.8 How many copper atoms are in
a penny weighing 3.10 g?
Given: 3.10 g Cu
Find: atoms Cu
Concept Plan: g Cu mol Cu atoms Cu
1 mol 6.022 10 23 atoms
63.55 g 1 mol
1 mol Cu = 63.55 g,
Relationships: 1 mol = 6.022 x 1023

Solution: 1 mol Cu 6.022 10 23 atoms

3.10 g Cu  
63.55 g Cu 1 mol
2.94 10 22 atoms Cu
Check: since the given amount is much less than 1 mol Cu,
the number makes sense