Module 2 2G Technologies

 Network Structure
 Cell
A cell is the basic unit of a cellular system
and is defined as the radio coverage given by
one BTS.

ETC 702 [Link]

Network Structure

 LOCATION AREA
 A LA is defined as a group of cells. Within the
network, a subscriber's location is known by
the Location Area which they are in.

ETC 702 [Link]

Network Structure

 MSC Service Area

 An MSC Service Area is made up of LAs and
represents the geographical part of the
network controlled by one MSC.

ETC 702 [Link]

Network Structure

 A public land mobile network (PLMN) service

area

 the area in which an operator offers radio

coverage and access to its network.

ETC 702 [Link]

Network Structure

 GSM SERVICE AREA

 The GSM service area is the entire

geographical area in which a subscriber can

gain access to a GSM network

ETC 702 [Link]

Relation between areas in
GSM

Location
CellArea
Location Area
MSC Service Area
PLMN Service Area
GSM Service Area

ETC 702 [Link]

Mobile Station

 GSM MSs consist of

 Mobile Equipment
 Subscriber Identity Module

ETC 702 [Link]

Functions of Mobile Station

 Voice and data transmission & receipt

 Frequency and time synchronization
 Monitoring of power and signal quality of the
surrounding cells
 Provision of location updates even during
inactive state
ETC 702 [Link]
Mobile Station

 Can receive, store, send SMS up to 160

characters.
 MS identified by unique IMEI shown on
pressing *#06#.
 Power levels of 20W, 8W, 5W, 2W and .8W

ETC 702 [Link]

SIM(Subscriber Identity Module)
 SIM has microprocessor and memory.

Fixed data stored for the subscription:

 International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)

 Authentication Key

 Security Algorithms

 personal identification number (PIN) & PIN

unlock key (PUK)

ETC 702 [Link]

Network Identities

 International Mobile Equipment Identity

(IMEI)
 The IMEI is an unique code allocated to each

mobile equipment. It is checked in the EIR.

IMEI check List
 White List

 Grey List

 Black List

ETC 702 [Link]

Network Identities
 Mobile Station ISDN Number
The MSISDN is registered in the telephone
directory and used by the calling party for dialing.
 MSISDN shall not exceed 15 digits.
 NDC--National Destination Code
 SN--Subscriber Number

ETC 702 [Link]

Network Identities

 International mobile subscriber Identity

 The IMSI is an unique identity which is used
internationally and used within the network to
identify the mobile subscribers.
 The IMSI is stored in the subscriber identity
module (SIM), the HLR, VLR database.

ETC 702 [Link]

Network Identities

 Mobile Station Roaming Number

 MSRN--is a temporary identity which is assigned
during the establishment of a call to a roaming
subs.

ETC 702 [Link]

 BASE STATION SUB SYSTEM

MSC/VLR

BSC BSC

BSC
BSS
BSS

n BTS n BTS
ETC 702 [Link]
FUNCTIONS OF BTS

 Signal Processing
 Signaling link management
 Synchronization
 Local maintenance handling
 Functional supervision and Testing

ETC 702 [Link]

VISITOR LOCATION REGISTER (VLR)

 It contains data of all mobiles roaming in its

area.

 One VLR may be in charge of one or more LA.

 VLR is updated by HLR on entry of MS its area.

ETC 702 [Link]

 Home Location Register(HLR)

 Reference store for subscriber’s parameters,

numbers, authentication & Encryption values.

 Current subscriber status and associated VLR.

 Both VLR and HLR can be implemented in the

same equipment in an MSC.

ETC 702 [Link]
Databases of GSM Network

ETC 702 [Link]

Procedure of Location Update

ETC 702 [Link]

SET UP CALLS IN GSM NETWORK

 +90 400 398 0102

 MSISDN = CC + NDC + SN
 CC : Country Code
 NDC : National Destination Code
 SN : Subscriber Number
 GMSC : Gateway Mobile Services Switching
Center

ETC 702 [Link]

REACH CALLS FROM PSTN TO GSM
NETWORK

ETC 702 [Link]

GSM Architecture

ETC 702 [Link]

EQUIPMENT IDENTITY REGISTER ( EIR )
 This data base stores IMEI for all registered
mobile equipment and is unique to every ME.

 Only one EIR per PLMN.

 White list : IMEI, assigned to valid ME.

 Black list : IMEI reported stolen
 Gray list : IMEI having problems like
faulty software, wrong make of equipment etc.

ETC 702 [Link]

AUthentication Center (AUC)

 To authenticate the subscribers attempting to

use a network.

 AUC is connected to HLR which provides it

with authentication parameters and ciphering

keys used to ensure network security.

ETC 702 [Link]
AUC Functions

 To perform subscriber authentication and to

establish ciphering procedures on the radio

link between the network and MS.

ETC 702 [Link]

AUC Functions
 Information provided is called a TRIPLET
consists of:

 RAND(non predictable random number)

 SRES(Signed response)

 Kc(ciphering key)

ETC 702 [Link]

Operation Maintenance Centre

 The centralized operation of the various units

in the system and functions needed to
maintain the subsystems.

 Dynamic monitoring and controlling of the

network

ETC 702 [Link]

Functions of OMC
 -O&M data function

 -Configuration management

 --Fault report and alarm handling

 -Performance supervision/management

 -Storage of system software and data

ETC 702 [Link]

GSM Operation

ETC 702 [Link]

GSM Architecture

ETC 702 [Link]

GPRS Architecture

ETC 702 [Link]

GPRS - MS
 SGSN – Serving GPRS Support Node
 GGSN - Gateway GPRS Support Node
 GSM/GPRS services can be used in parallel.
Three classes of mobile station:
 Class A – Simultaneous use of GSM and GPRS
 Class B – Can register for both GSM and GPRS,
but only use one at a time
 Class C – Can attach for only either GSM or
GPRS (with the exception of SMS messages)

ETC 702 [Link]

Disadvantage of Digital System in
2G
 Cellular towers had a limited coverage area.
 Abrupt dropped calls due to uneven decay
curve.
 Spotty Coverage.
 Data services were not supported.

ETC 702 [Link]

GPRS - Introduction
 GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) is an overlay on
top of the GSM physical layer and network entities.
 It is a packet-switched technology that enables data
communications over GSM network, often described as
2.5G
 It does not setup a continuous channel from a portable
terminal for the transmission and reception of data, but
transmits and receives data in packets, thus enabling
efficient use of the available radio spectrum.
ETC 702 [Link]
GPRS - Introduction
 It uses exactly the same physical radio channels as
GSM, only logical GPRS radio channels are defined.
 Allocation of the channels is flexible: from one to eight
radio interface time slots can be allocated per TDMA
frame.
 Bursty data is well handled by GPRS.
 It is not well suited for real –time applications.
 It is suited for non-real time applications such as e-mail
and web surfing.
ETC 702 [Link]
GPRS Gateways
 [Link] GPRS Support Node (SGSN):
 In GPRS network SGSN is equivalent to
MSC. Packets of data between MSC and
Public Switch Data Network (PSDN) are
transferred and received by SGSN.
 [Link] GPRS Support Node (GGSN):
 GSM data base e.g. HLR and VLR are
supported by GGSN. It also interacts with
external packet-switch networks.

ETC 702 [Link]

GPRS - SGSN

 Delivers data packets to mobile stations &

vice-versa
 Detect and Register new GPRS MS in its
serving area
 Packet Routing, Transfer & Mobility
Management
 Authentication, Maintaining user profiles
 Its location register stores location info. &
user profiles
ETC 702 [Link]
GPRS - GGSN
 Interfaces GPRS backbone network & external packet
data networks
 Converts the GPRS packets from SGSN to the (Packet
data protocol ) PDP format
 Converts PDP addresses change to GSM addresses of
the destination user
 Stores the current SGSN address and profile of the user
in its location register
 Performs authentication
ETC 702 [Link]
GPRS Back bone Network

ETC 702 [Link]

GPRS – Mobile Station
 All GPRS-MS are backward compatible with GSM systems for

making voice calls using GSM network.

 They are of 3 types:

 Class A- Support Simultaneously GPRS and GSM services.

 Class B- It can monitor all GSM and GPRS channels

simultaneously, but operate either GPRS or GSM at a time.

 Class C-It supports only GPRS services

ETC 702 [Link]

GPRS BACK BONE NETWORKS

 They are of two types:

 Intra-PLMN –It allows SGSNs and GGSNs of
one service provider to communicate with each
other via Gn interface.
 Inter-PLMN-It allows SGSNs and GGSNs of
different service provider to communicate with
each other via GP interface.
ETC 702 [Link]
GPRS – LOCATION MANAGEMENT
 It depends on three states of the mobile user in which it
can operate
 Idle state - The mobile user is not reachable by the
network and the contexts of packet data protocol are
deleted.
 Standby state - Movement across routing areas is
updated to the SGSN but not across cells.
 Ready state - Every movement of the mobile user is
indicated to the SGSN.
ETC 702 [Link]
GPRS MOBILITY MANAGEMENT
 Data is transmitted between MS and GPRS
network only when MS is in active state. In it
SGSN know the exact location of the MS.
 Mobility Management deals with handoff
initiation.
 Power Control and security mechanisms are
implemented in the similar way as done in GSM.
 A logical link is established and maintained
between the MS and the SGSN in each mobile
network.

ETC 702 [Link]

GPRS ADVANTAGES

 Short access time to the network for

independent short packets (500-1000bytes).
 No hardware changes to the BTS/BSC.
 Easy to scale.
 Support for voice/data and data only
terminals.
 High throughput(upto21.4kbps).
 User friendly billing.

ETC 702 [Link]

GPRS CHALLENGES

 Limited Cell Capacity.

 Lower data speeds.
 Transit Delays.
 No Store and forward.
 Tariff and billing.

ETC 702 [Link]

EDGE
 EDGE / EGPRS implemented as enhancement for 2G
and 2.5G GSM and GPRS networks for relatively easy
upgrade
 Base stations (BS) and base station controllers (BSC)
have to be modified for EDGE compatible transceiver
units
 Requires new mobile terminal (MT) hardware and
software for decode/encode the new modulation and
coding schemes
 Additionally to Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK)
higher-order PSK/8 phase shift keying(8PSK) used

ETC 702 [Link]

EDGE ARCHITECTURE

ETC 702 [Link]

EDGE
 EDGE systems inherits almost all its features
from GSM and GPRS
 EDGE could be directly implemented in an
existing GSM system
 For those users not having an EDGE equipped
mobile phone, it is fully compatible with existing
GSM as well as GPRS.
 It defines 9 air interface formats known as
Modulation and Coding Schemes with varying
degrees of error control protection
ETC 702 [Link]
EDGE

 EDGE carries up to 236.8 kbit/s for 4 time

slots
 Because of physical layer enhancements
HSCSD data rates are increased too.
 EDGE can be used for any packet switched
application, such as an Internet connection.

ETC 702 [Link]

EDGE

 The introduction of “ high band width ” data

services allows more than SMS services.
 MMS is the abbreviation for Multimedia
Messaging Service
 Defined by several organizations for GSM
and UMTS networks
 Common standard for the mobile phones of
different vendors

ETC 702 [Link]

EDGE - CONCLUSION

 EDGE is a 3G technology offering a common

migration path and convergence for GSM and
TDMA operators
 EDGE supports IP packet data at peak rates
> 384kbps
 Voice over IP is planned for EDGE
 EDGE enables significantly higher peak
rates, and approximately triples the spectral
efficiency
ETC 702 [Link]
GSM Channels

ETC 702 [Link]

LOGICAL CHANNELS
 The combination of time slot number and an
ARFCN(Absolute radio frequency channel number)
constitutes a physical channel for both forward and
reverse links.
 Each physical channel in a GSM can be mapped into
different logical channels at different times.
 Communication between the MS and BS is involved with
both voice as well as signaling and control.
 Voice and signaling are inserted in hierarchy and MS use
counters to identify the location of a specific packet burst
in the overall structure of the frame.

ETC 702 [Link]

CONTROL CHANNELS
 Three types of control channels are defined in GSM:
 BCH CCCH DCCH
 BCH: It is used by BTS to broadcast system parameters such as frequency of
operation in the cell operator identifiers, cell ID and available service of all
MSCs.
 It also broadcasts a list of channels that are currently in use within the cell.
 It is used for signal strength measurement for handoff.
 FCCH is used by BTS to broadcast frequency references and frequency
correction burst of 148 bit length.
 SCH is used by BTS to broadcast frame synchronization signals containing the
synchronization training sequences burst of 64 bits length to all MSCs.
 It is transmitted once every ten frames within the control channel multi frame.

ETC 702 [Link]

CONTROL CHANNELS
 CCCH: It is a one way channel used for establishing links between
the MS and BS, they are used to page specific subscribers, assign
signaling channels to specific users and receive mobile request for
service.

 PCH: It is a forward link channel and is used by BTS to page or

notify a specific individual MS for an incoming call in the cell.

 It transmits IMSI number of the target subscriber along with a

request for acknowledgement from the mobile unit in RACH.

ETC 702 [Link]

CONTROL CHANNELS

 RACH : It is reverse link channel and is used by the MS

either to access the BTS requesting the dedicated
channel for call establishment or to acknowledge a page
from PCH.

 AGCH: It is used by BS to provide forward link

communication to mobile for implementation of the
acknowledgement from the BTS to MS after successful
attempt by using RACH in a previous CCCH frame.
 It is also used by BS to send information about timing
and synchronization to the MS.

ETC 702 [Link]

CONTROL CHANNELS
 DCCH: It is a two –way channel having the same format and function on
both forward and reverse links, supporting signaling and control for
individual mobile subscribers and are used along with voice channels to
serve for any control information transmission during actual voice
communication.
 SDCCH: It is allocated with SACCH to enable mobile terminal to transfer
network control and signaling information for call establishment and mobility
management.
 SACCH: It is used to exchange necessary parameters between BTS and
MS during the actual transmission to maintain the communication link. Its
data rate is half of that of SDCCH.
 FACCH: It supports fast transitions such as a hand off request in the
channel. It is multiplexed with TCH and SDCCH to provide additional
support to the SACCH.

ETC 702 [Link]

TRAFFIC CHANNELS

 Voice channels are called traffic channels in GSM. They

are two way channels for carrying voice and data traffic

between BS and MSC.

 Frames of TCH data are broken up every thirteenth

frame by either SACCH or idle frames.

ETC 702 [Link]

FRAME STRUCTURE

ETC 702 [Link]

FRAME STRUCTURE

 Frequency band of operation.

 Number of Logical channels or Number of Time
Slots in TDMA frame-8
 Channel Bandwidth- 200KHz
 Maximum Cell radius-35km
 Maximum Vehicle Speed-250km/h
 Maximum Delay Spread-10s
 Maximum coding delay-20ms

ETC 702 [Link]

GSM Security
 Access Control and Authentication
User should not be able to use the GSM resources without
being authenticated

 Confidentiality
Messages containing user related information should not be
accessible to others

 Anonymity
User identifier is not used over the air Confidentiality (Privacy
from eavesdropping)

 Temporary encryption key is used for privacy of data, signaling, and

voice Information is encrypted before transmission

ETC 702 [Link]

AUTHENCATION PROCESS AND CIPHERING
KEY GENERATION

ETC 702 [Link]

GSM: Identification
 Identification of Mobile Subscriber
International Mobile Subscriber Identity
(IMSI)
Temporary IMSI (TMSI)
Mobile Subscriber ISDN number (MSISDN)
 Identification of Mobile Equipment
International Mobile Station Equipment
Identification (IMEI)
Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)

ETC 702 [Link]

MOBILE ORIGINATED CALL

ETC 702 [Link]

MOBILE CALL TERMINATION

ETC 702 [Link]

Advantages of GSM over Analog system

 Capacity increases
 Reduced RF transmission power and longer battery life.
 International roaming capability.
 Better security against fraud (through terminal validation
and user authentication).
 Encryption capability for information security and privacy.
 Compatibility with ISDN, leading to wider range of
services.
 MAHO.

ETC 702 [Link]

CDMA Basics - Outline

 How CDMA Works

 CDMA signal generation
 Types of code used in CDMA
 Forward and Reverse code channels
 CDMA Call processing.

ETC 702 [Link]

Spread Spectrum (SS)
 A transmission technique in which a pseudo-noise (PN) code,
independent of the information data, is employed as a
modulation waveform to “spread” the signal energy over a BW
much greater than the signal information BW. At the receiver
the signal is “despread” using a synchronized replica of the
pseudo-noise code.
 The word ”Code” and “division” are important parts of how
CDMA works.
 CDMA uses codes to convert between analog voice signals
and digital signals.
 CDMA also uses codes to “separate ( or divide) voice and
control data into data streams called “channels”.
 These digital data stream channels should not be confused
with frequency channels.

ETC 702 [Link]

Generation of CDMA Signal
 There are five steps in generating a CDMA
signal.
 analog to digital conversion
 Vocoding
 encoding and interleaving
 channelizing the signals
 conversion of the digital signal to a Radio
Frequency (RF) signal

ETC 702 [Link]

Generation of CDMA Signal

ETC 702 [Link]

A-D Conversion
 The first step of CDMA signal generation is A to D
conversion.
 CDMA uses a technique called PCM to accomplish A/D
conversion.

ETC 702 [Link]

Voice Compression

 CDMA uses a device called a vocoder to

accomplish voice compression.
 The term “vocoder” is a contraction of the “voice
and “code”.
 Vocoders are located at BSC and in the phone.

ETC 702 [Link]

How Compression works

 People pause between syllables and words

when they talk.
 CDMA takes advantage of these pauses in
speech activity by using a variable rate
vocoder.

ETC 702 [Link]

Variable Rate Vocoder

 A CDMA vocoder varies compression of the

voice signal in to one of four data rates based
on the rate of the user’s speech activity.
 The four rates are ,Full,1/2,1/4 and 1/8.
 The vocoder uses its full rate when a person
is taking very fast .
 It uses the 1/8 rate when the person is silent
or nearly so.

ETC 702 [Link]

Encoding and Interleaving

 Encoders and interleaver are built into the

BTS and the phones.
 Encoding and interleaving is a mechanism for
ensuring that the effect of data-loss during
transmission can be recovered.

ETC 702 [Link]

How encoding works
 The types of encoding done at this stage is
called “convolution encoding.”
 A simplified encoding is the repetition code :
Each bit is repeated three times.
 These encoders bits are called symbols.
 The decoder at receiver uses a majority logic
rule.
 Thus ,if an error occurs, the redundancy can
help recover the lost information.

ETC 702 [Link]

Encoding and Interleaving

ETC 702 [Link]

Burst errors
 A burst errors is a type of error in received
digital telephone signals.
 Bursts errors occur in clumps of adjacent
symbols.
 These errors are caused by fading and
interference.
 Encoding and interleaving reduce the
effects of burst errors.

ETC 702 [Link]

How interleaving works
 It is simple but powerful method of reducing the effects
of burst errors and recovering lost bits.
 In example shown here the symbols from each group are
interleaved in a pattern that the receiver knows.
 De-interleaving at receiver unscrambles the bits,
spreading any burst errors that occur during
transmission.

ETC 702 [Link]

Channelizing
 The encoded and interleaved voice data for a user is
further encoded to distinguish it from encoded voice data
for other users.
 The encoded symbols are then spread over the entire B.W.
of the CDMA channel.
 This process is called channelization.
 The receiver knows the code and uses it to recover the
voice data.

ETC 702 [Link]

PN codes

 Pseudorandom Noise (PN) codes uniquely

identify users.
 The PN codes in CDMA yield about 4.4
trillion combinations of code.
 This is a key reason why CDMA is also
secure.

ETC 702 [Link]

Conversion of Digital Signal to
Radio Frequency
 Finally, the encoded signals are converted
into radio frequency signals, as the digital
signals can’t travel longer distance.

ETC 702 [Link]

Conversion of Digital Signal to
Radio Frequency
 The BTS combines channelized data from all
calls into one signal.
 It then converts the digital signal to a radio
frequency (RF) signal for transmission.

ETC 702 [Link]

Reception of CDMA Signals
 After CDMA signal is transmitted ,the receiver must
reverse the signal generation process to recover the
voice, as follows:
 conversion of RF signal to digital signal
 Despreading of signal
 Deinterleaving and decoding
 Voice decompression
 Digital to analog voice conversion
ETC 702 [Link]
Reception of CDMA Signals

ETC 702 [Link]

Conversion of RF Signal to
Digital Signal

ETC 702 [Link]

Despreading the Signal

 The despreading stage of signal reception

reverses the effect of channelization, to
produce a strong signal that can be used by
the subsequent stages in the reception
mechanism.

ETC 702 [Link]

Deinterleaving and Decoding

ETC 702 [Link]

Voice Decompression

ETC 702 [Link]

D-A Conversion

ETC 702 [Link]

CODE CHANNELS USED IN
CDMA
 A code channel is a
stream of data.
 Channel may be voice
or overhead control
data.
 Channels are
separated by codes.
 The forward and
reverse links use
different types of
channels.
ETC 702 [Link]
FORWARD LINK CHANNELS
 It is used to transmit
voice data and control
data to the mobile
 Pilot
 Sync
 Paging
 Traffic

ETC 702 [Link]

FORWARD LINK STRUCTURE

ETC 702 [Link]

Pilot channel
 The BTS constantly transmits the pilot
channel.
 The mobile uses the pilot signal to acquire
the system.
 It uses the pilot signal to monitor and adjust
the power needed in order to transmit back to
the BTS

ETC 702 [Link]

Sync Channel

 The BTS constantly transmits over the sync

channel so the mobile can synchronize with the
BTS.
 It provides mobile with the system time and the
identification number of the cell.
 The mobile ignores the sync channel after it is
synchronized.
ETC 702 [Link]
Paging Channel

 CDMA uses up to seven paging channels

 The paging channel transmits overhead
information such as commands and pages to
the mobile.
 The paging channel also sends commands
and traffic channel assignment during call
set-up.
 The mobile ignores the paging channel after
a traffic channel is established.
ETC 702 [Link]
Forward Link traffic channel

 CDMA uses between 55 and 61 traffic

channel to send both voice and control data
during a call.
 Once a call is completed, the mobile tunes
back into the paging channel for commands
and pages.

ETC 702 [Link]

MODULATION PROCESS FOR IS
95 FORWARD TRAFFIC CHANNEL

ETC 702 [Link]

Reverse link channels

 Reverse link channels

Access

Traffic

ETC 702 [Link]

REVERSE LINK STRUCTURE

ETC 702 [Link]

Access channel
 The mobile uses the access channel when not assigned
to a traffic channel. The mobile uses the access channel
to:
 Register with the network
 32 Access Channels
 Originating calls
 Respond to pages and commands from the BS.
 Transmit overhead messages to the BS.

ETC 702 [Link]

Reverse link traffic channel

 The reverse link traffic channel is only used

when there is call.
 62 Traffic channels.
 The reverse link traffic channel transmits
voice data to the BTS
 Also transmits the overhead control
information during the call.

ETC 702 [Link]

CDMA Planning for Frequency
Reuse
 In CDMA networks, adjacent cells can
transmit at the same frequency.

ETC 702 [Link]

Call processing stages

 There are 4 stages or modes in CDMA call

processing:
 Initialization mode
 Idle mode
 Access mode
 Traffic mode
ETC 702 [Link]
Initialization mode

 During initialization, the mobile:

 Acquires the system via the pilot code
channel
 Synchronization with the system via the sync
code channel.

ETC 702 [Link]

Idle mode

 The mobile is not involved in call during idle

mode, but it must stay in communication with
the BS:
 The mobile and the BS communicates over
the access and paging code channel
 The mobile obtains overhead information via
the paging code channel.

ETC 702 [Link]

Access mode

 The mobile accesses the network via the

access code channel during call origination.
 The access and paging channel carry the
required call set-up communication between
the mobile and the BTS until a traffic channel
is established.

ETC 702 [Link]

Traffic mode

 During a land to mobile (LTM) call:

 The mobile receives a page on the paging
channel.
 The mobile responds on the access channel
 The traffic is established and maintained
throughout the call.
ETC 702 [Link]
Traffic mode contd…

 During a mobile to land (MTL):

 The call is placed using the access channel.

 The BS responds on the paging channel.

 The traffic channel is established and

maintained throughout the call

ETC 702 [Link]
Call processing (message)

 During the call overhead messaging

continues on the traffic channel in a limited
fashion.
 This message uses “Dim and Burst” or Blank
and Burst” signaling, which replaces part of
the voice traffic with system messages.
 The user does not detect this signaling, due
to the strong data recovery schemes inherent
to CDMA.

ETC 702 [Link]

Multiple Path Problem

 These different
paths result in the
receiver getting
several versions of
the same signal
but at different
times.

ETC 702 [Link]

Rake Receiver
 It is capable of
receiving signals from
multiple sources and
adding them together.

ETC 702 [Link]

KEY FEATURES - DIVERSITY

Frequency Diversity Time Diversity Space Diversity

transmission of signal on transmission of data at Dual cell site receiver
two frequencies spaced different times antennas, rake
further apart than the receivers, multi cell
coherence bandwidth sites(soft handoff)
repeating the data ‘n’
times
interleaving and error
correcting codes used in
IS-95

ETC 702 [Link]

POWER CONTROL
 CDMA goal is to maximize the number of simultaneous users.
 Capacity is maximized by maintaining the signal to
interference ratio at the minimum acceptable level.
 To resolve near far problem.
 Power transmitted by mobile station must be therefore
controlled.
 Due to non-coherent detection at BS ,interference on reverse
link power control is more critical.
 The transmit power for each user must be reduced to limit
interference.
 The power should be enough to maintain the required (signal
to noise ratio) for a satisfactory call quality.

ETC 702 [Link]

Need for Power Control
 If all handsets
transmit the same
power level, the base
station will receive
unnecessarily strong
signals from handsets
nearby and extremely
weak signals from
handsets that are far
away.

ETC 702 [Link]

What is Power Control?
 Power control
enables handsets to
adjust the power at
which they transmit

ETC 702 [Link]

Power Control Contd…
 The CDMA network
independently controls
the power at which
each mobile transmits.
 Both forward and
reverse links use
power control
techniques.

ETC 702 [Link]

Power Control Contd…
 Open loop  Closed loop
 Mobile estimates the  The base station
loss and makes monitors the S/N ratio
necessary adjustments and gives commands

ETC 702 [Link]

CDMA HANDOFFS

 CDMA has three primary types of handoff:

 soft
 hard
 idle
 The type of handoff depends on the handoff
situation.
ETC 702 [Link]
Soft Handoff

 A soft handoff establishes a connection with

the new BTS prior to breaking the connection
with the old one.
 Soft handoffs are also called "make-before
break."

ETC 702 [Link]

Hard Handoff

 A hard handoff requires the mobile to break

the connection with the old BTS prior to
making the connection with the new one.
 Hard handoffs are also called "break-before
make."

ETC 702 [Link]

Idle Handoff

 An idle handoff occurs when the phone is in

idle mode.

 An idle handoff occurs without any assistance

from the BTS.

ETC 702 [Link]

ADVANTAGES
 Universal frequency reuse
 Fast and accurate power control
 Different types of handoff
 Rake receiver
 Coverage
 Capacity
 Clarity
 Cost
 Compatibility
 Customer satisfaction

ETC 702 [Link]