Polysaccharides
and Major examples of
Polysaccharides.
Made By:
Talha Nadeem
Shazil
Rohail Rizwan
Ali Abbas
Mohsin Ali
Introduction To
Polysaccharides
Definition
A polysaccharide is a type of
carbohydrate made up of many sugar
molecules linked together. Think of it like a
long chain of sugars. These chains can be
used for energy storage (like starch in plants
and glycogen
Types in animals) or for building
Of Polysaccharides
strong structures (like cellulose in plants and
chitin
Polysaccharides can in
beinsect shells).
classified into two main
types based on their function:
1. Storage Polysaccharides (Used for
energy storage)
•Starch – Found in plants (like potatoes and rice),
stores energy.
•Glycogen – Found in animals (mainly liver and
muscles), stores energy for quick use.
2. Structural Polysaccharides (Used for
building strong structures)
•Cellulose – Found in plant cell walls, gives strength
and support (humans can’t digest it).
•Chitin – Found in insect shells, crab shells, and
fungi cell walls, provides protection.
Storage Polysaccharides :
Starch
Definition
Starch is a type of complex carbohydrate that
is very important for both plants and
humans. It is one of the most common
natural substances on Earth and is the main
way plants store energy. Starch is made up of
many glucose (sugar) molecules linked
together, which makes it an important energy
source for both plants and people.
(C₆H₁₀O₅)ₙ
Chemical Composition and Structure:
Starch is a polysaccharide made entirely
of glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) molecules.
•The general chemical formula of starch
is (C₆H₁₀O₅)n, where "n" represents the
number of glucose units linked together.
•It consists of carbon (C), hydrogen (H),
and oxygen (O) atoms.
Formula Of Starch : (C₆H₁₀O₅)ₙ
Structure:
Starch has two main components.
Amylose (20-30%)
Made of long, straight chains of glucose
molecules linked by α-1,4-glycosidic
bonds.
It forms a helical (spiral) structure and is
less soluble in water.
Amylopectin (70-80%)
Made of branched chains of glucose
molecules.
It has α-1,4-glycosidic bonds in the main
chain and α-1,6-glycosidic bonds at
branch points.
The branching helps it dissolve more
easily and break down faster for energy.
Physical and Chemical Properties of
Starch
Physical Properties:
[Link] – Starch is a white, tasteless, and
odorless powder.
[Link] – Starch is insoluble in cold water but
can form a paste in hot water.
[Link] – It feels smooth and powdery when dry.
[Link] Nature – Starch can absorb water
from the air.
[Link] – When heated with water, starch
granules swell, absorb water, and form a thick
paste.
[Link] Activity – Starch molecules can rotate
polarized light.
Chemical Properties:
[Link] – Starch breaks down into simpler
sugars (maltose and glucose) in the presence of
acids or enzymes like amylase.
[Link] Test – Starch gives a blue-black color when
mixed with iodine, confirming its presence.
[Link] with Heat – When heated without water,
Uses breaks
starch of Starch:
down into dextrins, giving a brown
[Link] Industry – Starch is used to thicken soups, sauces,
color.
and puddings. It is also
[Link] foundsuitable
– Under in bread,conditions,
pasta, and rice as
starch
a source
can of energy. into alcohol by yeast.
be converted
[Link] Industry
[Link] – Starchcan
– Starch is used to stiffen
be broken fabrics
down and
into
improve dioxide
carbon their strength
(CO₂)during weaving.
and water (H₂O) through
[Link] Industry
complete – It is used to make paper stronger and
oxidation.
smoother, helping with printing and writing.
Glycogen
Definition
Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate
(polysaccharide) that serves as the main storage
form of energy in animals and humans. It is made
up of many glucose molecules linked together in
a highly branched structure and is stored mainly
in the liver and muscles for quick energy use.
Formula
The chemical formula of glycogen is (C₆H₁₀O₅)ₙ,
where "n" represents the number of glucose units.
Glycogen is a highly branched polysaccharide
made up of many glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) molecules
linked together, similar to starch but more
branched.
Structure of Glycogen
Glycogen is a highly branched polysaccharide made up
of D-glucose units linked together.
•Main Chain Bonds:
• Glucose molecules are connected by α-1,4-glycosidic
bonds to form the linear backbone of glycogen.
•Branch Points:
• Every 8–12 glucose units, a new branch is formed using
α-1,6-glycosidic bonds.
•Compact, Tree-Like Structure:
• The highly branched nature allows for rapid addition or
removal of glucose molecules when energy is needed.
• It makes glycogen more soluble in water compared to
Comparison with Starch
Property Glycogen Starch
Found in Animals &
Plants
Humans
Structure Less Branched
Highly Branched (Amylopectin) or
Linear (Amylose)
Roots, Seeds,
Storage
Liver, Muscles Tubers (e.g.,
Organs Potatoes)
Solubility More Soluble Less Soluble
Importance of Glycogen
•Helps sustain energy levels during fasting and
physical activity.
•Prevents hypoglycemia (low blood sugar).
•Supports brain function (since the brain relies
on glucose for energy).
•Plays a crucial role in athletic performance and
endurance.
Glycogenolysis (Breakdown of Glycogen)
•When energy is needed, glycogen is broken
down into glucose and released into the
bloodstream or used in muscles.
•Enzyme Involved: Glycogen phosphorylase.
Storage and Location
Glycogen is stored mainly in two places:
[Link] (Hepatic Glycogen, ~100g in adults):
[Link] as the body's main glucose reservoir.
[Link] regulate blood sugar levels by
releasing glucose when needed (through
glycogenolysis).
[Link] (Muscle Glycogen, ~400g in adults):
[Link] energy for muscle activity during
exercise.
[Link] liver glycogen, muscle glycogen is
only used by muscles and does not
contribute to blood sugar regulation.
[Link] Amounts in Other Organs:
[Link], kidney, and white blood cells also
What Happens If Glycogen is
Depleted?
•Fatigue and Weakness – Muscles lose energy,
making movement difficult.
•Dizziness and Confusion – The brain lacks glucose,
leading to mental fog and poor concentration.
•Hypoglycemia (Low Blood Sugar) – Can cause
shakiness, sweating, and even fainting.
Structural Polysaccharides :
Cellulose
Definition
Cellulose is a complex carbohydrate
(polysaccharide) made up of many glucose molecules
linked together in long, straight chains. It is the main
structural component of plant cell walls, providing
strength and support. Unlike starch and glycogen,
cellulose cannot be digested by humans, but it is
important for dietary fiber and digestion
Formula
The chemical formula of cellulose is (C₆H₁₀O₅)ₙ,
where "n" represents the number of glucose units
in the chain.
Chemical Composition :
Cellulose is made up of D-glucose molecules
linked by
β-1,4- glycosidic
•Cellulose is madebonds, forming
of D-glucose long, straight,
molecules linked
and rigid chains that provide structural support to
together.
plants.
•Unlike glycogen and starch, which use α-glucose,
cellulose is made from β-glucose.
Structural Components
•This difference of Glycogen
in glucose form changes how the
a) Glucose link
molecules Units (Monomers)
together and makes cellulose
stronger and more rigid.
b) Types of Glycosidic Bonds
•β-1,4-glycosidic bonds connect glucose molecules in a
straight, unbranched chain.
•The β-linkages create a linear structure, unlike the
branched structures of glycogen and starch.
•No α-1,6 bonds (branching points) exist in cellulose,
making it a rigid fiber rather than a compact, energy-
storing molecule.
Why Can’t Humans Digest Cellulose?
•Humans lack the enzyme cellulase, which is needed
to break β-1,4-glycosidic bonds.
•Herbivores like cows and termites have bacteria in
their guts that help break down cellulose into glucose.
•Even though humans can’t digest it, cellulose is still
important as dietary fiber, helping in digestion and gut
health.
Functions of Cellulose
1. Provides Structural Support in Plants – Forms the main
part of plant cell walls, giving plants strength and shape.
2. Acts as Dietary Fiber in Humans – Helps digestion,
prevents constipation, and promotes gut health.
3. Energy Source for Herbivores – Animals like cows and
termites can digest cellulose with the help of special
bacteria.
[Link] in Industry – Important for making paper, textiles
(cotton, linen), and biodegradable materials.
5. Helps in Soil and Water Retention – Improves soil
fertility and retains moisture for plant growth.
Pharmaceutical Uses of Cellulose
6. Binder in Tablets – Helps hold ingredients together
in tablet formulations.
7. Disintegrant – Aids in the breakdown of tablets for
faster drug absorption.
8. Coating Agent – Used to coat pills for controlled
drug release and protection.
9. Thickening Agent – Used in creams, gels, and
suspensions to improve texture.
[Link] – Prevents separation in liquid medicines
and eye drops.
11. Filler (Excipient) – Adds bulk to tablets and
capsules without affecting drug activity.
12. Sustained-Release Formulations – Modified
cellulose (e.g., Hydroxypropyl Methylcellulose) helps in
slow drug release
Difference Between Cellulose and Starch
Featur
Cellulose Starch
e
Glucose Made of α-
Made of β-glucose
Type glucose
α-1,4 & α-1,6-
β-1,4-glycosidic
glycosidic
Bond Type bonds (straight bonds (branched
chain)
& unbranched)
Compact and
branched
Linear, rigid, and
Structure fibrous
(amylopectin)
or unbranched
(amylose)
Indigestible by Easily
Digestibility humans (needs digestible by
cellulase enzyme) humans
Found in plant cell Found in
Presence
walls, wood, and potatoes, rice,
in Nature cotton wheat, and corn
Chitin
Definition
Chitin is a structural polysaccharide made of N-
acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) units linked by β-1,4-
glycosidic bonds. It is found in insect
exoskeletons, fungal cell walls, and crustacean
shells, providing strength and protection. Chitin is
similar to cellulose but contains nitrogen, making
it more rigid and durable.
Formula and composition
(C8H13O5N)n
•It consists of repeating units of N-
acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc).
•The "n" represents the number of repeating units
in the polymer.
•Chitin contains carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen
(O), and nitrogen (N), making it different from
•cellulose,
Monomer which
Unit – lacks nitrogen.
N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc)
•Derived from glucose but has an acetyl (-COCH₃)
Structure
group of Chitin
attached to nitrogen.
•Chitin is a linear polysaccharide
This nitrogen-containing composed
group makes of N-
chitin
acetylglucosamine
stronger (GlcNAc)
and more rigid thanunits, which are linked
cellulose.
•by β-1,4-glycosidic
β-1,4-Glycosidic bonds (similar to cellulose).
Linkages
•Connect GlcNAc monomers in a straight,
unbranched chain.
•This bonding makes chitin highly crystalline and
resistant to degradation.
•Hydrogen Bonding Between Chains
•Parallel chitin chains are held together by hydrogen
bonds, forming microfibrils.
•This structure provides strength and flexibility to
Structure of Chitin
Uses and Functions of Chitin
1. Structural Support in Nature
Forms the exoskeletons of insects, crabs, shrimp, and
lobsters, providing strength and protection.
•Found in fungal cell walls, giving rigidity and shape to
fungi.
•Present in mollusk shells and fish scales for additional
support.
2. Pharmaceutical & Medical Uses
Used in wound dressings due to its antibacterial and
healing properties.
•Helps in drug delivery systems for controlled release of
medicines.
•Used in antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral
treatments.
3. Industrial Applications
Used to make biodegradable plastics, reducing pollution.
•Helps in water purification by removing heavy metals.
•Used in cosmetics and personal care products (lotions,
creams, hair care).