WOLDIA UNIVERSITY

Institute of Technology
School of Mechanical and chemical Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Course title:- Measurement and Instrumentation
(MEng 4211)

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Sensors and Transducers
Introduction
 The sensor sense the condition or value of the process variable
and produce an output which reflects this condition, state or
value.
 The transducers transform the energy of the process variable to
an output of some other type of energy which is able to operate
some control device.
 Example. Dial indicator of spindle, bourdon tube of a pressure
gauge are a sensor.
 Sensor converts physical quantities or energy into non-electrical
signal.
 A transducer converts physical quantity or energy into an
2 electrical signal.
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The difference between sensor and transducer
 A sensor will give an output in the same format and a transducer
will convert the measurement into an electrical signal.
 A transducer may contain such a sensor and use it to obtain data,
which it then translates into readable, meaningful information.
 A sensor is more of a detector, while a transducer is more of a
translator.

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Transducer
 Broadly defined is a device that converts the an non electrical
quantity in to electrical quantity.
 Invers transducer is defined as device that converts an electrical
quantity in to a non-electrical quantity.
Classification of Transducer
 There are many principles on which a transducer can work like
resistive, inductive, capacitive etc. So Transducer can be
categorized on the basis of four thoughts.
1. Primary and secondary type
2. Analog and digital type
3. Active and passive type
4. Transducer and Inverse type
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Primary and Secondary Type
 Suppose you need to measure pressure. In this case we use
bourdon tube. So bourdon tube act as primary transducer it
senses the pressure and converts pressure into displacement of its
free end. The displacement of free end moves core of linear
variable differential transducer which produces output voltage
proportional to movement of core which is again proportional to
pressure. So we are able to measure pressure. Here bourdon tube
is primary transducer and LVDT is secondary transducer.
Analog and digital type
 Transducers converting input quantity to analog.
 Ex. Strain gauge, thermometer etc.
 Digital transducers convert input to electrical output in form of
5 pulses.
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Active and passive type
 Active transducers are those which don’t need auxiliary power
source to produce output. The energy required for production of
output signal is obtained from physical quantity being measured.
Eg. Piezoelectric crystals, tacho-generators etc.
 Passive transducers are those which need an auxiliary power
source to produce output.
Eg. linear potentiometer etc.
 Specification for Transducer
 Accuracy. transducer accuracy is the closeness of the measured
value to the actual value.
 Frequency. transducer frequency is the measure of how fast the
transducer can respond to change in input.
6 Hysteresis, Output, Range, Resolution, Sensitivity, Span.
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Resistance Transducer
 The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed as follow and
varying one of the quantities will generate different output.
R = ρL/A
 Where, R =Resistance, Ω
ρ = Resistivity of conductor, Ω-m
L = Length of conductor, m
A = Cross-sectional area of conductor, m2
Classification of resistance transducer:
1. Mechanically varied resistance - Potentiometer
2. Thermal resistance change - Resistance thermometer
3. Resistivity change - Resistance strain gauge
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Linear or Angular Motion Potentiometers
 Convert linear motion or angular motion of input varable into change in
resistance.
 Used to measure pressure, force, acceleration, liquid level.
Advantages:
1. High output range
2. Less expensive
3. Available in different sizes, shapes, ranges.
4. High electrical efficiency
5. Insensitive towards vibration and temperature
Disadvantages:
1. Limited life due to early wear of sliding arm.
2. Noisy & erratic output in high speed operation
83. Resolution is limited in wire wound potentiometer
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Wire wound potentiometer:
 Materials used are platinum, nickel chromium, nickel copper, etc.
Carry large currents at high temperatures.
Low temp. coefficient of resistance.
Resolution is limited. 0.025 – 0.05 mm.
Limited response to about 5 Hz.

Non wire wound potentiometer:

 Materials used are cerment, Hot moulded carbon, carbon film,
thin metal film.
Improved resolution and life
More sensitive to temp. changes
Can carry only moderate currents.

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Wheatstone bridge
 A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an
unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge
circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component.

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Thermisters & Resistance Thermometers
 It is well known that resistance of metallic conductors increases with
temperature, while that of semiconductors generally decreases with
temperature.
 Resistance thermometers employing metallic conductors for
temperature measurement are called Resistance Temperature Detector
(RTD), and those employing semiconductors are termed as
Thermistors.
 It is an accurate temperature sensor.
 = (1 + 𝑇 + + …+ )
 Resistance thermometers are conductive elements like nickel and
copper or tungsten and nickel/iron alloys.
 The variation of resistance R with temperature T for most metallic
materials can be, represented by an equation of the above where :- Ro
11 is the resistance at T = C , 𝑎 = temperature coefficient .
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 The changes in resistance for different metals are given in the
following

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Applications:
 Measurement of temperature
 Temp. compensation in complex electronic equipment, magnetic
amplifiers and instrumentation equipment.
 Measurement of power at high frequencies
 Vacuum measurement
 Measurement of level, flow and pressure of liquids
 Measurement of thermal conductivity.

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Variable Inductance Transducer
 These are based on a change in the magnetic characteristic of an
electrical circuit in response to a measurand which may be
displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc.
1. Self-generating type (active): Voltage is generated because of
the relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field.
Electromagnetic type
Electro-dynamic type
Eddy Current type
2. Passive type: Motion of an object results in the inductance of the
coils of the transducer.
Variable reluctance
Mutual inductance
14 
Differential transfer type
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Electromagnetic Type Transducer
An electromagnetic transducer is a device that generates a voltage
signal (called electromagnetic voltage or emf) as a result of the
disturbance of the magnetic field of an electromagnetic element.
When a plate of iron or other ferromagnetic material is moved
w.r.t. the magnet, the flux field expands or collapses and a
voltage is induced in the coil.
Used for indication of angular speed.
Speed can be measured when the pick-up is placed near the
teeth of a rotating gear.

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Electro-dynamic Type Transducer
 Coil moves within the field of magnet. The turns of the coil are
perpendicular to the intersecting lines of force.
 When the coil moves it induces a voltage which at any moment is
proportional to the velocity of the coil.
 Used in magnetic flow meters.

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Eddy Current Type
 When a plate of nonferrous material is moved cutting magnetic
flux lines, a voltage is induced in the coil.

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Variable Reluctance Transducer
 Variable Inductance Transducers Constructed based on one of the
following Principles. change of self inductance change of mutual
inductance Production of eddy currents. Induction transducers
used for measurement of displacement and thickness.
 Magnetic circuit reactance may be changed by affecting a change
1. In the air gap (Reluctance type) or
2. In the amplitude/type of core material (Permeance type)
 In variable reluctance type transducer, the change in inductance
may be calibrated in terms of movement of armature.
 Used for measurement of dynamic quantities such as pressure,
force, displacement, acceleration, angular position, etc.

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In Variable Permeance type Transducer
 The inductance of coil is changed by varying the core material.
 When the coil on insulating tube is energized and the core enters
the solenoid cell, the inductance of the coil increases in
proportion to the amount of metal within the coil.
 Used for measurement of displacement, strain, force, etc.

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Mutual Inductance Transducer
 A change in the position of armature by a mechanical input
changes the air gap. This causes a change in output from coil Y,
which may be used as measure of the displacement of mechanical
input.

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Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)
 LVDT is an acronym for Linear Variable Differential
Transformer.
 It is a common type of electromechanical transducer that can
convert the rectilinear motion of an object to which it is coupled
mechanically into a corresponding electrical signal.
 Passive inductive transformer
 Used to measure force ( or weight, pressure, acceleration etc
which depend on force.

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Capacitive Transducers

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 The capacitive transducers work on the principle of change in
capacitance caused by change in:
Overlapping area
Distance between plates
 These changes are caused by the physical variables like
displacement, force, pressure, and liquid level.

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Advantages of capacitive transducers
 Require small force to operate and hence suitable for small system
 Extremely sensitive
 Have a good frequency response (high as 50KHz)
 High resolution (2.5×10−3 mm)
 Capacitive transducer can be used where stray magnetic field render
inductive transducers
 Small power to operate
Disadvantages of capacitive transducers
 The metallic part of the capacitive transducers must be insulated from
each other.
 Frame must be earthed to reduced stray
 Capacitance non-linear behaviour cut to edge effect

35 Connecting wire can introduce error
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Example 1.

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Example 2;

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Solution ex-2;

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Piezoelectric Transducer
 A piezoelectric transducer (also known as a piezoelectric sensor)
is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect to measure changes in
acceleration, pressure, strain, temperature or force by converting
this energy into an electrical charge.
 When we squeeze the piezoelectric material or apply any force or
pressure, the transducer converts this energy into voltage. This
voltage is a function of the force or pressure applied to it.

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Materials for Piezoelectric Transducers
 The materials exhibiting the piezoelectric phenomenon are divided into
two groups:
 (i) Natural
 (ii) Synthetic
 The natural group consists of quartz, Rochelle salt and tourmaline.
 The synthetic group consists of ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP),
lithium sulphate (LS) and Dipotassium Tartarate (DKT).
 Depending on the crystal structure, discs or wafers are-cut and used for
measurement of force in one or the other of the modes described.
 Quartz is the most stable material and artificially grown quartz is normally
preferred as it is purer than the natural quartz.
 Tourmaline is the only material exhibiting a large sensitivity.
 Rochelle salt is the material that is being produced on industrial scale for
producing gramophone [Link] crystal microphones.
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 It has the highest relative permittivity among the natural group.
 ADP crystals possess the lowest resistivity which is also temperature
dependent. With temperature compensation they are used in
acceleration and pressure transducers.
 Lithium sulphate is highly sensitive.
Ferroelectric Materials
 They are certain polycrystalline ceramic compounds which exhibit the
property of retaining electric polarization when exposed to intense
electric fields.
 These materials are known as ferroelectric materials (equivalent to
ferromagnetic materials), and after polarization, their behaviour is
similar to the piezoelectric materials.
 Three such common substances which are popularly used for
piezoelectric transducers are Barium titanate (BaTi03), lead zirconate-
41 titanate, and lead metaniobate.
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Piezoelectric semiconductors
 A localized stress on the upper surface of the p - n junction of a
semiconductor diode caused a very large reversible current
change in the current across the junction.

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 This phenomenon is due to the anisotropic stress effect in p – n
junctions, and devices utilizing this effect are known as
piezoelectric diodes and transistors.
 The variation of current across the junction of a Germanium
diode for forward and reverse voltages is shown in Fig. (above).
 It is observed that considerable change in the magnitude of the
current results from application of a few grams of localized force.

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Hall-effect Transducers
 When any specimen carrying a current I is placed in the transverse
magnetic filed B then an electric filed E is induced in the specimen
in the direction perpendicular to both I and B. the phenomenon is
known as Hall effect.
 The material used in the manufacture of Hall-effect devices is a p-
type or an n-type semiconductor. Typical examples are indium
arsenide, indium arsenide phosphide, and doped silicon.
 The following Figure shows a section of a p-doped semiconductor
subjected to a magnetic field Bz in the z direction and an electric
field Ex in the x direction. A current Ix flows in the x direction. The
holes move in the x direction across the magnetic field and
experience an upward magnetic force, which results in the
accumulation of holes on the top surface and electrons on the
44 bottom face, as indicated.
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 An electric field Ey, known as the Hall field, is set up as a
consequence, and this is known as the Hall effect. The
corresponding Hall voltage =Eyt. Since there is no flow of current
in the y direction, the magnetic force equilibrates with the electric
force that is exerted on the holes, and as a result the Hall voltage
can be expressed as;

=hall coefficient is negative for n-type

semiconductor
h= dimension parallel with

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Hall effect displacement transducer

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 The above Figure shows the HET being used to measure small
displacements. If the displacement brings magnet 1 close to the
transducer, the output voltage will be increasingly positive, and it
will be increasingly negative if magnet 2 moves closer to the
HET.
 The magneto resistance effect is closely associated with Hall-
effect transducers.

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Thermoelectric transducers
 Two dissimilar metal conductors when joined at the ends and the
two junctions kept at different temperatures then a small e.m.f. is
produced in the circuit.
 The magnitude of this voltage depends upon the material of
conductors and temperature difference between the two junctions.
This thermoelectric effect is used in thermocouples for
measurement of temperature .
 Thermocouples are manufactured from various combinations of
the base metals copper and iron, the base-metal alloys of alumel
(Ni/Mn/Al/Si), chromel (Ni/Cr), constantan (Cu/Ni), nicrosil
(Ni/Cr/Si) and nisil (Ni/Si/Mn), the noble metals platinum and
tungsten, and the noble-metal alloys of platinum/rhodium and
tungsten/rhenium.
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 The five standard base-metal thermocouples are chromel–
constantan (type E), iron–constantan (type J), chromel–alumel
(type K), nicrosil–nisil (type N) and copper–constantan (type T).

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The difference between RTD and thermocouple.
RTD Thermocouple
Less measurement range broader measurement range
(-270°C to 3000°C)
Not robust, complex to use robust, simple to use
Have self-heating problem no self-heating problem
(usable in gas measurement) (usable in gas measurement)
Not accepts long connection accepts long connection
wires wires
High sensitivity (μV/°C) lower sensitivity (μV/°C)
No need of reference known reference
temperature temperature needed

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Law of homogeneous circuits:
 Thermoelectric current cannot be maintained in a homogeneous
circuit by heat alone.
Therefore
 Junctions of different materials must be used
 Single conductor will never cause a Seebeck potential
 Intermediate temperatures do not influence Seebeck potential

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Law of intermediate metals:
 Algebraic sum of all Seebeck potentials in a circuit composed by
several different materials remains zero when the whole circuit is
at a uniform temperature.
 The Materials may be connected in the circuit without affecting
the output of the circuit as long as the new junctions are kept at
the same temperature.

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Law of intermediate metals:
 Algebraic sum of all Seebeck potentials in a circuit composed by
several different materials remains zero when the whole circuit is
at a uniform temperature
 Based on the (fig. below) thermal relation between metals B and
C follows from the relation between A and B and the relation
between A and C
Therefore,
 not all material combinations need to be known
 use single material as reference

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Law of intermediate temperatures:
 Two junctions at T1 and T2 produce Seebeck voltage V2
 Two junction at T2 and T3 produce Seebeck voltage V1
 Then temperatures T1 and T3 will produce V3 =V1 +V2
 The Calibration can be done at reference temperature T2 and
device can used with different reference temperature T3

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Thermocouples in series
 Thermocouple laws allow analysis of circuits like

 Output voltage multiple of single thermocouple

 Circuit know as thermopile

 amplifies output voltage without use of operational amplifier
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Thermocouples in parallel
 Thermocouple laws allow analysis of circuits like

 Output voltage proportional to the average temperature

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Photoelectric transducer
 The photoelectric transducer converts the light energy into
electrical energy. It is made of semiconductor material. The
photoelectric transducer uses a photosensitive element, which
ejects the electrons when the beam of light absorbs through it.
 The photoelectric transducer absorbs the radiation of light which
falls on their semiconductor material. The absorption of light
energises the electrons of the material, and hence the electrons
start moving.

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 The mobility of electrons produces one of the three effects.
 The resistance of the material changes.
 The output current of the semiconductor changes.
 The output voltage of the semiconductor changes.
Classification of Photoelectric Transducers
Photo-emissive Cell
 The Photo emissive cell converts the photons into electric energy. It
consists the anode rode and the cathode plate. The anode and cathode
are coated with a Photo emissive material called caesium antimony.
 When the radiation of light fall on cathode plates the electrons starts
flowing from anode to cathode. Both the anode and the cathode are
sealed in a closed, opaque evacuated tube. When the radiation of
light fall on the sealed tube, the electrons starts emitting from the
cathode and moves towards the anode.
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 The anode is kept to the positive potential. Thus, the photoelectric
current starts flowing through the anode. The magnitude of the
current is directly proportional to the intensity of light passes
through it.

Photoconductive Cell

 The photoconductive cell converts the light energy into an electric

current. It uses the semiconductor material like cadmium
selenide, Ge, Se, as a photo sensing element.
 When the beam of light falls on the semiconductor material, their
conductivity increases and the material works like a closed
switch. The current starts flowing into the material and deflects
63 the pointer of the meter.
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Photo-voltaic cell
 The photovoltaic cell is the type of active transducer. The current
starts flowing into the photovoltaic cell when the load is
connected to it. The silicon and selenium are used as a
semiconductor material. When the semiconductor material
absorbs heat, the free electrons of the material starts moving. This
phenomenon is known as the photovoltaic effect.
 The movements of electrons develop the current in the cell, and
the current is known as the photoelectric current.

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Photodiode
 The photodiode is a semiconductor material which converts the
light into the current. The electrons of the semiconductor material
start moving when the photodiode absorbs the light energy. The
response time of the photodiode is very less. It is designed for
working in reverse bias.

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Phototransistor
 The phototransistor is a device that converts the light energy into
electric energy. It produces both the current and voltage.
 The photovoltaic cell is a bipolar device which is made of
semiconductor material. The semiconductor material is enclosed
in an opaque container in which the light easily reaches to the
photosensitive element. The element absorbs light, and the
current starts flowing from base to emitter of the device. This
current is converted into the voltages.

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Basis For Comparison Photodiode Phototransistor

Definition It is a type of PN-junction It is a type of transistor

diode which generates which converts the light
electric current when light energy into an electrical
or photon is incident on energy
their surface.

Symbol
Generates Current Current and Voltage
Output Response Fast Slow
Sensitivity Less More
Biasing Both forward and Forward biasing (emitter
reversed biasing. is more negative as
compared to the
collector. )
Uses For generating solar Smoke detector,
power, for detecting compact disc players,
ultraviolet or infrared invisible light receiver,
69 rays, for measuring light in laser etc
etc.
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Strain Gauges
 These types of transducers are based on the principle that if a
conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance will change,
because of change in its length, area & resistivity.
 Also called piezo-resistive gauges.
 Types of strain gauges:
1. Wire wound strain gauges
2. Foil type strain gauges
3. Semiconductor strain gauges
4. Capacitive strain gauges
 Strain gauges are of two types.
1. Bonded Strain Gauge
70 2. Unbonded Strain Gauges
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Strain Gauges

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Wire Strain Gauges
 Requirements:
 Should have high value of gauge factor
 Resistance should be as high as possible
 Low resistance temperature coefficient
 Should not have hysteresis effect
 Should have linear characteristics
 Frequency response should be good

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Foil Strain Gauge
Strain is measured with the help of metal foil.
Much greater dissipation capacity as compared with wire
wound gauges on account of their greater surface area for same
volume.
High operating temperature ranges.
Available range is 50Ω to 1000Ω.
Fabricated economically on a mass scale.

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Semiconductor strain gauges
Change in resistance due to change in resistivity.
Very high gauge factor and small envelope.
Silicon and germanium
Excellent hysteresis characteristics
Fatigue life is in range of 106 operations
Frequency response up to 1012 Hz
Length from 0.7 to 7 mm.
Very sensitive to change in temperature.
Poor linearity.

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Capacitive Strain Gauges
 Uses principle of variation of capacitance with variation of
distance between electrodes.
 Electrodes are flexible metal strips of about 0.1 mm thickness.
 Strain-capacitance relationship is not linear.
 Strain gauges has a capacitance of about 0.5 pF.
 Its overall size is 5mm x 17mm x 1mm.
 It uses a polyamide film of insulating material.
 Can be used up to a temperature of 300C.

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Bonded Resistance Strain Gauges
 Used for measurement of variable like
strain, force, torque, pressure, vibration,
etc.
 Metallic or semiconductor materials.
 Very sensitive and used in electronic
equipment.
 Strains as low as 10-7can be measured.
 Gauge current is limited to 10 – 30 mA

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Un-bonded Resistance Strain
Gauges
 Resistance wire is stretched
between two frames, one moving
and other is fixed.
 Typical dimensions of wire are
25 mm in length and 25 μm in
diameter.
 Can measure very small motions
of the order of 50μm and very
small forces.
 Used to measure force, pressure,
acceleration, etc.
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