TRANSMISSION PROBLEMS
IN MOBILE CELLULAR
COMMUNICATION
TRANSMISSION PROBLEMS
Many problems may occur during the transmission of a radio signal. Some of the most
common problems are described below.
PATH LOSS
Path loss occurs when the received signal becomes weaker and weaker due to increasing
distance between MS and BTS, even if there are no obstacles between the transmitting
(Tx) and receiving (Rx) antenna. The path loss problem seldom leads to a dropped call
because before the problem becomes extreme, a new transmission path is established via
another BTS.
SHADOWING
Shadowing occurs when there are physical obstacles including hills and buildings between
the BTS and the MS. The obstacles create a shadowing effect which can decrease the
received signal strength. When the MS moves, the signal strength fluctuates depending on
the obstacles between the MS and BTS.A signal influenced by fading varies in signal
strength. Drops in strength are called fading dips.
MULTIPATH FADING
Multipath fading occurs when there is more than one transmission path to the MS or
BTS, and therefore more than one signal arriving at the receiver. This may be due to
buildings or mountains, either close to or far from the receiving device. Rayleigh fading
and time dispersion are forms of multipath fading.
Rayleigh fading
This occurs when a signal takes more than one path between the MS and BTS antennas. In
this case, the signal is not received on a line of sight path directly from the Tx antenna.
Rather, it is reflected off buildings, for example, and is received from several different
indirect paths. Rayleigh fading occurs when the obstacles are close to the receiving antenna.
The received signal is the sum of many identical signals which differ only in phase (and
to some extent amplitude). A fading dip and the time that elapses between two fading
dips depends on both the speed of the MS and the transmitting frequency. As
an approximation, the distance between two dips caused by Rayleigh fading is about
half a wavelength. Thus, for GSM 900 the distance between dips is about 17 cm.
Rayleigh fading
Time Dispersion
Time dispersion is another problem relating to multiple paths to the Rx antenna of either an
MS or BTS. However, in contrast to Rayleigh fading, the reflected signal comes from an object
far away from the Rx antenna. Time dispersion causes Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) where
consecutive symbols (bits) interfere with each other making it difficult for the receiver to
determine which symbol is the correct one. An example of this is shown in the figure below
where the sequence 1, 0 is sent from the BTS.
Time Dispersion
If the reflected signal arrives one bit time after
the direct signal, then the receiver detects a 1
from the reflected wave at the same time it
detects a 0 from the direct wave. The symbol 1
interferes with the symbol 0 and the MS does
not know which one is correct.
TIME ALIGNMENT
Each MS on a call is allocated a time slot on a TDMA frame. This is an amount of time
during which the MS transmits information to the BTS. The information must also arrive
at the BTS within that time slot. The time alignment problem occurs when part of the
information transmitted by an MS does not arrive within the allocated time slot.
Instead, that part may arrive during the next time slot, and may interfere with
information from another MS using that other time slot. Time alignment is caused by a
large distance between the MS and the BTS. Effectively, the signal cannot travel over
the large distance within the given time.
TIME ALIGNMENT
For example, an MS is close to a BTS and has been allocated time slot 2 (TS 2). During the
call, the MS moves away from the BTS causing the information sent from the BTS to arrive
at the MS later and later. The answer from the MS also arrives later at the BTS. If nothing is
done, the delay becomes so long that the transmission from the MS in time slot 3 overlaps
with the information which the BTS receives in time slot 4.
COMBINED SIGNAL LOSS
Each of the problems described above occur independently of each other. However, in most
calls some of these problems may occur at the same time. An illustration of what the signal
strength may look like at the MS Rx antenna when moving away from the BTS Tx antenna is
shown in Figure 3-15. The problems of path loss, shadowing and Rayleigh fading are present
for this transmission [Link] signal strength as a global mean value decreases with the
distance (path loss) and finally results in a lost connection. Around this global mean, slow
variations are present due to shadowing effects and fast variations are present due to
Rayleigh fading.
At any one point from the Tx antenna, the received signal can look like the signal in
Figure 3-16 below.
The lowest signal strength value required for a specified output is called receiver
sensitivity level. To detect the information sent from Tx antenna, X watts must be received.
If the signal falls below X, the information will be lost and the call may be dropped. To
ensure that no information is lost, the global mean value must be as many dB above the
receiver sensitivity level as the strongest (deepest) fading dip gives rise to. This fading
margin is the difference between the global mean value and the receiver sensitivity.