MODULE 5

Engineering Materials
The various engineering material properties are
• Physical properties
• Chemical properties
• Thermal properties
• Electrical properties
• Magnetic properties
• Optical properties, and
• Mechanical properties
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

• The mechanical properties of materials are of great industrial

importance in the design of tools, machines and structures.
• The main mechanical properties of the metal are
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

• Elasticity
• It is defined as the property of a material to regain its original shape
after deformation when the external forces are removed. It can also
be referred as the power of material to come back to its original
position after deformation when the stress or load is removed. It is
also called as the tensile property of the material.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

• Proportional limit
• It is defined as the maximum stress under which a material will
maintain a perfectly uniform rate of strain to stress. Though its value
is difficult to measure, yet it can be used as the important applications
for building precision instruments, springs, etc.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

• Elastic limit
• Many metals can be put under stress slightly above the proportional
limit without taking a permanent deformation. The greatest stress
that a material can endure without taking up some permanent
deformation is called elastic limit. Beyond this limit, the metal does
not regain its original form and permanent deformation will occurs.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

• Yield point
• At a specific stress, ductile metals particularly ceases, offering
resistance to tensile forces. This means, the metals flow and a
relatively large permanent deformation takes place without a
noticeable increase in load. This point is called yield point. Certain
metals such as mild steel exhibit a definite yield point, in which case
the yield stress is simply the stress at this point.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

• Strength
• Strength is defined as the ability of a material to resist the externally
applied forces without failure. The capacity to withstand destruction
under the action of external loads is known as strength. The stronger
the material the greater the load it can withstand. This property of
material therefore determines the ability to withstand stress without
failure. Strength varies according to the type of loading such as
tensile, compressive, shearing and torsional strengths. The maximum
stress that any material can withstand before destruction is called its
ultimate strength.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

• Stiffness
• It is defined as the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The
resistance of a material to elastic deformation or deflection is called stiffness or rigidity.
A material that suffers slight or very less deformation under load has a high degree of
stiffness or rigidity. For instance suspended beams of steel and aluminium may both be
strong enough to carry the required load but the aluminium beam will “sag” or deflect
further. That means, the steel beam is stiffer or more rigid than aluminium beam. If the
material behaves elastically with linear stress-strain relationship under Hooks law, its
stiffness is measured by the Young’s modulus of elasticity (E). The higher is the value of
the Young’s modulus, the stiffer is the material. In tensile and compressive stress, it is
called modulus of stiffness or “modulus of elasticity”; in shear, the modulus of rigidity,
and this is usually 40% of the value of Young’s modulus for commonly used materials; in
volumetric distortion, the bulk modulus.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Plasticity
• Plasticity is defined the mechanical property of a material which retains the
deformation produced under load permanently. This property of the
material is required in forging, in stamping images on coins and in
ornamental work. It is the ability or tendency of material to undergo some
degree of permanent deformation without its rupture or its failure. Plastic
deformation takes place only after the elastic range of material has been
exceeded. Such property of material is important in forming, shaping,
extruding and many other hot or cold working processes. Materials such as
clay, lead, etc. are plastic at room temperature and steel is plastic at forging
temperature. This property generally increases with increase in
temperature of materials.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Ductility
• Ductility is termed as the property of a material enabling it to be
drawn into wire with the application of tensile load. A ductile material
must be strong and plastic. The ductility is usually measured by the
terms, percentage elongation and percent reduction in area which is
often used as empirical measures of ductility. The materials those
possess more than 5%elongation are called as ductile materials. The
ductile material commonly used in engineering practice in order of
diminishing ductility are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin
and lead.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Malleability
• Malleability is the ability of the material to be flattened into thin
sheets under applications of heavy compressive forces without
cracking by hot or cold working means. It is a special case of ductility
which permits materials to be rolled or hammered into thin sheets. A
malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to be so
strong. The malleable materials commonly used in engineering
practice in order of diminishing malleability are lead, soft steel,
wrought iron, copper and aluminium. Aluminium, copper, tin, lead,
steel, etc. are recognized as highly malleable metals.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Hardness
• Hardness is defined as the ability of a metal to cut another metal. A
harder metal can always cut or put impression to the softer metals by
virtue of its hardness. It is a very important property of the metals
and has a wide variety of meanings. It embraces many different
properties such as resistance to wear, scratching, deformation and
machinability etc.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Brittleness
• Brittleness is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the
property of breaking of a material with little permanent distortion.
The materials having less than 5% elongation under loading behavior
are said to be brittle materials. Brittle materials when subjected to
tensile loads, snap off without giving any sensible elongation. Glass,
cast iron, brass and ceramics are considered as brittle material.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Creep
• When a metal part when is subjected to a high constant stress at high
temperature for a longer period of time, it will undergo a slow and
permanent deformation called creep.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Formability
• Ease with which metal can be changed or formed to various shapes
and sizes.
• Low carbon steel possesses good formability.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Castability
• Castability is defined as the property of metal, which indicates the
ease with it can be casted into different shapes and sizes. Cast iron,
aluminium and brass are possessing good castability.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Weldability
• Weldability is the ease with which metals can be welded.
• Metals having weldability in the decreasing order are iron, steel, cast
steels and stainless steels.
 TESTING OF METALS

• Metal testing is accomplished for the purpose of for estimating the behavior of
metal under loading (tensile, compressive, shear, tortion and impact, cyclic loading
etc.) of metal and for providing necessary data for the product designers,
equipment designers, tool and die designers and system designers. The material
behavior data under loading is used by designers for design calculations and
determining weather a metal can meet the desired functional requirements of the
designed product or part. Also, it is very important that the material shall be
tested so that their mechanical properties especially their strength can be
assessed and compared. Therefore the test procedure for developing standard
specification of materials has to be evolved. This necessitates both destructive and
non-destructive testing of materials. Destructive tests of metal include various
mechanical tests such as tensile, compressive, hardness, impact, fatigue and creep
testing. A standard test specimen for tensile test is shown in Fig. 7.2. Non-
destructive testing includes visual examination, radiographic tests, ultrasound test,
liquid penetrating test and magnetic particle testing.
Destructive Testing Methods
 Tensile test
• A tensile test is carried out on standard tensile test specimen in
universal testing machine.
 Compression Test
• Compression test is reverse of tensile test. This test can also be
performed on a universal testing machine. Here, compressive load is
applied on to the test specimen. This test is generally performed for
testing brittle material such as cast iron and ceramics etc
 Testing of Hardness
• Hardness is a very important
property of the metals and has a
wide variety of meanings. It
embraces many different properties
such as resistance to wear,
scratching, deformation and
machinability etc. It also means the
ability of a metal to cut another
metal. The hardness of a metal may
be determined by the following
tests.
Testing of Hardness

• The hardness of a metal may be

determined by the following tests.
• (a) Brinell hardness test
• (b) Rockwell hardness test
• (c) Vickers hardness (also called
Diamond Pyramid) test
• (d) Shore scleroscope
 Testing of Impact Strength
• When metal is subjected to suddenly
applied load or stress, it may fail. In
order to assess the capacity of metal
to stand sudden impacts, the impact
test is employed.
• Izod test and the Charpy test are
commonly performed for
determining impact strength of
materials.
 Testing of Fatigue
• Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in
structures subjected to dynamic stresses or
loads over a period of time
• Fatigue failure is a common cause of failure
in bridges, aircraft, machines etc..
• Parts subjected to repeated alternating
stresses or loads over an extended period of
time.
• Standard test specimens are tested to failure
using different loads, and the number of
cycles before failure is noted for each load.
The results of such tests are recorded on
graphs of applied stress against the
logarithm of the number of cycles to failure.
• The fatigue test determines the cycle of
stresses or loads which a sample of material
Testing of Fatigue
 Testing of Creep
• Metal part when is
subjected to a high
constant stress at high
temperature for a longer
period of time, it will
undergo a slow and
permanent deformation
called creep. Creep is time
dependent phenomena of
metal failure at high
constant stress and at high
temperature.
 Non Destructive Testing Methods
• Method to inspect and/or measure the materials or structures without
destroying their surface texture, product integrity and future usefulness.
• Successful NDT tests allow locating material conditions and flaws that
might otherwise cause planes to crash, reactors to fail, trains to derail,
pipelines to burst, and variety of less visible, but equally troubling events.
• These techniques generally require considerable operator skill and
interpreting test results accurately.
• These methods can be performed on metals, plastics, ceramics,
composites, cemets, and coatings in order to detect cracks, internal voids,
surface cavities, delamination, incomplete c defective welds and any type
of flaw that could lead to premature failure.
• Commonly used NDT test methods are
 Visual inspection

• VI is particularly effective detecting

macroscopic flaws, such as poor welds.
• Like wise, VI is also suitable for detecting flaws
in composite structures and piping of all types.
• VI is carried out by using naked eye or by using
magnifying glasses.
• Essentially, visual inspection should be
performed the way that one would inspect a
new car prior to delivery.
 Radiography

• Radiography is an imaging technique that uses electromagnetic radiation other

than visible light, especially X-rays, to view the internal structure of a non-
uniformly composed and opaque object (i.e. a non-transparent object of
varying density and composition) such as the human body.
• To create the image, a beam of X-rays is produced by an X-ray generator and is
projected toward the object. A certain amount of X-ray is absorbed by the
object, which is dependent on the particular density and composition of that
object.
• The X-rays that pass through the object are captured behind the object by a
detector (either photographic film or a digital detector).
• The detector/Photographic film after processing provide a superimposed 2D
representation of all the object's internal structures. This method is less
popular because of the hazards of handling radioactive materials.
Radiography
 Liquid Penetrant Testing (LPT)
Materials Used
• Penetrant
• Developer
Magnetic Particle Testing
Ultrasonic Inspection
 FERROUS METALS
The ferrous metals are those which have iron as their main constituents. On
the basis of percentage of carbon and other elements present along with iron,
ferrous metals can be classified in to steel and cast iron.
STEEL
• Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with carbon content maximum up to
2.14%. Other elements e.g. silicon, sulphur, phosphorus and manganese are
also present to greater or lesser amount to impart certain desired
properties to it.
CAST IRON
• Cast iron is basically an alloy of iron and carbon. The carbon content in cast
iron is above 2.14%. They are called so because they are usually
manufactured through casting.
STEELS
• The steel may be of various kinds and few important types are
explained as under.
• Low carbon or mild steel - 0.15% to 0.45% carbon
• Medium carbon steel - 0.45% to 0.8% carbon
• High carbon steel - 0.8% to 1.5% carbon
Low carbon or mild steel - 0.15% to 0.45% carbon
• Properties of low carbon steel: Tough, malleable, ductile and more
elastic than wrought iron. It can be easily forged and welded. It can
absorb shocks. It rusts easily. Its melting point is about 1410° C.
• Applications of low carbon steel: It is used for making angle, channels,
case hardening steel, rods, tubes, valves, gears, crankshafts,
connecting rods, railway axles, fish plates, small forgings, free cutting
steel shaft and forged components etc.
Medium carbon steel - 0.45% to
0.8% carbon
• Properties of Medium Carbon Steel: It can be easily forged, welded,
elongated due to ductility and beaten into sheets due to its good
malleability. It can easily absorb sudden shocks. Its melting point is
1400° C.
• Applications of Medium carbon steels: It is generally used for making
railway coach axles, bolts, connecting rods, key stock, wires and rods,
shift and break levers, spring clips, gear shafts, small and medium
forgings, crank pins on heavy machines, spline shafts, crankshafts,
forging dies, set screws, die blocks, self tapping screws, clutch discs,
valve springs, plate punches, thrust washers etc.
 High carbon steel - 0.8% to 1.5%
carbon
• Properties of High Carbon steel: High Carbon content provides high
hardness and strength. Hardest and least ductile. Used as tool and die
steels owing to the high hardness and wear resistance property. These
steels are easy to forge and simple to harden.
• It has application for making cold chisels, drill bits, wrenches, wheels
for railway service, jaws for vises, structural wires, shear blades,
automatic clutch discs, hacksaws etc.
 Low Carbon Medium Carbon High Carbon
Property
Steel Steel Steel

Strength Low Medium High

Hardness Low Medium High
Brittleness Low Medium High
Cost Low Medium High
Ductility High Medium Low

Compared to other engineering materials these have high strength, reasonable

toughness, easy to recycle and low cost. Also they rust easily hence require
surface protection.
 PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON
• Cast iron is a brittle material
• It has low cost.
• Low shrinkage and good fluidity hence Good casting characteristics.
• High compressive strength.
• High wear resistance
• Excellent machinability.
 Advantages of Cast Iron
• Low tooling and production cost
• Good machinability
• Can be cast in to complex shapes.
• Excellent wear resistance
• High hardness
• High damping capabilities
 TYPES OF CAST IRON
• Grey cast iron, White cast iron, Malleable cast iron, Ductile cast iron,
Nodular cast iron.
 APPLICATIONS OF CAST IRON
• Automobile Industry: Locomotive and internal combustion engine cylinder
blocks., Car wheel drums, Crankshafts, Engine connecting rods, Truck axles,
Suspension system parts, crank, crank cases, piston, piston rings etc…
• Heavy Machinery: Machine tool structures such as bed, frame, column
etc…
• Cast iron pipes
• It has application in the form of plates, sheets, bars, structural works and
billets, rivets, and a wide range of tubular products including pipe, tubing
and casing,
• Railway brake blocks. Railway couplings, and water and steam pipes
• Hinges and door keys
• Spanners
• Components of sewing machines and textiles machine parts.
 Alloy steel
• For improving the properties of ordinary steel, certain alloying elements
are added in it in sufficient amounts. The most common alloying elements
added to steel are chromium, nickel, manganese, silicon, vanadium,
molybdenum, tungsten, phosphorus, copper, that the titanium, zirconium,
cobalt, columbium, and aluminium. Each of these elements induces
certain qualities in steels to which it is added. They may be used
separately or in combination to produce desired characteristics in the
steel. The main purpose of alloying element in steel is to improve
machinability, elasticity, hardness, case hardening, cutting ability,
toughness, wear resistance, tensile strength, corrosion resistance, and
ability to retain shape at high temperature, ability to resist distortion at
elevated temperature and to impart a fine grain size to steel.
Alloying Element and Properties
 STAINLESS STEEL

• Stainless steel is an alloy of iron, chromium and other elements. Its

principal alloying element is chromium while some other elements like
nickel, manganese etc… can also be present in small amounts.. It has a
chromium content of about 12%. It is highly resistant to
corrosion/oxidation. It has high ductility, thermal conductivity, good
weldability, machinability. It also excellent surface appearance and finish.
• Stainless steels are extensively used for table cutlery, tools and
equipments, ball bearing, valves, knife blades and instruments under high
temperature and corrosive conditions. surgical and dental instruments,
springs of high temperature operations, ball valves and toilet seats.
 NON FERROUS METALIC MATERIALS
• Non-ferrous metals contain metals other than iron as their main
constituents such as aluminium, copper, zinc, magnesium, lead, tin,
nickel and their alloys and non-metallic materials. Various non-ferrous
alloys are copper base (brass, bronze), aluminium base alloys
(duralumin, Y-alloy, hindalium, magnalium), nickel alloys (inconel,
monel and ni-chromc), tin base alloys (bearing or antifriction alloys).
The non-ferrous metals are used for the following purposes namely
resistance to corrosion, special electrical and magnetic properties,
softness, facility of cold working, fusibility, ease of casting, good
formability, low density and attractive color.
 ALUMINIUM
PROPERTIES OF ALUMINIUM
• It is a low density metal.(1/3 rd that of steel)
• Very good conductor of electricity.
• Soft and ductile
• Good corrosion resistance.
APPLICATIONS
• It is mainly used in aircraft and automobile parts where saving of weight is an advantage.
• The high resistance to corrosion and its non-toxicity make it a useful metal for cooking utensils
under ordinary conditions.
• Aluminium metal of high purity has got high reflecting power in the form of sheets and is,
therefore,, widely used for reflectors, mirrors and telescopes.
• It is used in making furniture, doors and window components, rail road, trolley cars,
automobile bodies and pistons, electrical cables, rivets, kitchen utensils and collapsible tubes
for pastes.
• Aluminium foil is used as silver paper for food packing etc.
• In a finely divided form, aluminium is employed as a pigment in paint.
 COPPER
PROPERTIES
• Pure copper is soft, malleable and ductile metal with a reddish-brown appearance. It is a
good conductor of electricity.
• Excellent resistance to corrosion
• High thermal conductivity
• High electrical conductivity
• Very good machinability
• It can be soldered, welded or braed.
APPLICATION
• Copper is mainly used in making Coins, electric cables and wires for electric machinery,
motor winding, electric conducting appliances, and electroplating etc.
• Copper in the form of tubes is used widely in heat transfer in heat exchangers
• It is used for household utensils.
• It is also used in production of boilers, condensers, roofing etc.
The alloys of copper are Copper-zinc alloys (Brasses), Copper-tin alloys (Bronzes)
Non Metalic Materials
 CERAMIC MATERIALS
• Ceramic includes all products made from fired clay. Theses materials
are fabricated by first shaping the powder with or without the
application of pressure into a compact form and after that it is
subjected to high temperature.
• Examples: Glass, cement, Concrete etc…
• The characteristic feature of cement material is that when mixed with water,
they form a paste that subsequently set sets and hardens.
• Glass is made by melting together several minerals at very high temperatures.
 CERAMIC MATERIALS
PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS
• They are hard, brittle with low toughness and ductility.
• Wear resistant
• Good thermal and electrical insulators.
• High melting temperature.
• Chemically stable.
• They are susceptible to thermal shocks
• Resistant to oxidation and corrosion
• High compressive strength.
• Low tensile strength.
• Resistant to abrasion.
• Low tensile strength.
• Retain strength at high temperature.
 APPLICATION OF CERAMICS
• Tiles
• Wash basins and other sanitary wares.
• Insulators in circuits
• Ornaments
• Pottery table wares.
 COMPOSITES
• Sometimes two or materials are combined together to produce a new
material, which pocess much superior properties than the constituent
materials. Such materials are called composites.
• Wood is a natural composite material.
• Cement concrete is an artificial composite material.
• Other examples are steel reinforced concrete, , fiber reinforced
plastics such as fibre glass, carbon reinforced rubber etc…
 COMPOSITES
APPLICATION
• Commercial aircraft
• Missiles
• Space hardware's
• Automobiles and trucks
• Electrical and electronic devices
• Semiconductors
• Marine applications
 POLYMERS
• Plastics are commonly known as synthetic resins or polymers.
• In Greek terminology, the term polymer comprises 'poly' means 'many'
and 'mers' means 'parts'. Thus, the term, polymer represents a
substance built up of several repeating units, each unit being known as a
monomer.
• Thousands of such units or monomers join together in a polymerization
reaction to form a 'polymer'.
• The process forming polymers by linking together monomers is called
polymerization.
• Proteins, Enzymes, starches and cellulose found in plants and other living
beings are examples of Naturally occurring polymers.
• Polyethylene, Polystyrene, Nylon, Teflon, PVC etc… are examples of
 POLYMERS
PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS/PLASTICS
• Plastics are light in weight and at the same time they possess good
toughness strength and rigidity.
• They are less brittle than glass, yet they can be made equally
transparent and smooth.
• They are suitable to be used as electric insulation.
• They resist corrosion and the action of chemicals.
• The ease with which they can be mass-produced contributes greatly
to their popularity as wrappers and bags.
 POLYMERS
PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS/PLASTICS
• They possess the property of low moisture absorption.
• They can be easily moulded to desired shapes.
• They can easily be made colored.
• They are bad conductors of heat.
• They are hard and rigid..
• They possesses good deformability, good resiatance against weather
conditions, good colorability, good damping characteristics and good
resistance to peeling.
 POLYMERS
APPLICATION OF POLYMERS
• Medical Field: For drug delivery systems, For Biomaterials, such as
heart valve replacements, blood vessels etc…
• Automobile Industry: Body parts, Interior Parts, Acessories etc..
• Military Applications: Windshields for fighter planes, Light weight
weapons.
• Consumer Products: Packing Materials, Insulation, Wood Substitutes,
Adhesives, Plastic Containers, Clothing, Packaging, Bottles, Plastic
bags, Pipes, Sports equipments,
• Plastics are broadly classified into thermo plastics and thermo-setting
plastics.
Thermoplastics Thermosetting Plastics
They can be repeatedly softened by heat Once hardened and set, they do not soften with
1.
and hardened by cooling. the application of heat.
They are comparatively softer and less They are more stronger and harder than
2.
strong. thermoplastic resins
Objects made by thermoplastic resins can
Objects made by thermosetting resins can be
not be used at comparatively higher
3. used at comparatively higher temperature
temperature as they will tend to soften
without damage
under heat.

They are usually supplied in monomeric or

They are usually supplied as granular
4. partially polymerized material form in which they
material
are either liquids or partially thermoplastic solids.

Applications. Telephone receivers, electric plugs,

Applications. Toys, combs, toilet goods,
radio and T.V. cabinets, camera bodies,
5. photographic films, insulating tapes, hoses,
automobile parts, tapes, hoses, circuit breaker
electric insulation, etc.
switch panels, etc.
 Basic Crystallography
• Solid materials are classified according to the regularity with which
atoms are arranged with respect to one another and are classified as
crystalline and non crystalline (Amorphous) materials or solids.
Crystalline Solids: If the atoms of a solid are arranged in a pattern that
repeats itself in three dimensions, then such solids are called crystalline
solids.
Example: Metals, Alloys and some Ceramic materials.
Non Crystalline or Amorphous Solids: Materials or solids whose atoms
are not arranged in a long range, periodic, repeatable manner are
called Non crystalline or Amorphous solids.
Examples are most polymers Ceramic, Glasses etc..
Terms associated with
crystallography
 Terms associated with
crystallography
• Space Lattice: Three dimensional array of points.
• Basis/ Motif: The repeating unit (Atom, Molecule, ion etc…) located at
each lattice point.
Lattice+Basis=Crystal Structure
 Terms associated with
crystallography
• Unit Cell: Minimum volume cell in three dimension by repetition of
which whole crystalline solids may be generated.
Terms associated with
crystallography
Types of Crystal Structure based on
Unit Cell Geometry
Lattice Type
 Crystal Structures
• There are many different type of crystal structures.
• Simple Cubic Structure (SC)
• Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)
• Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)
• Hexagonal Closed Packed Structure (HCP)
Simple Cubic Structure (SC)
• [Link]
ics-in-a-nutshell.
com/article/12
Body Centered Cubic Structure
(BCC)
• [Link]
ics-in-a-nutshell.
com/article/12
Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)
• [Link]
ics-in-a-nutshell.
com/article/11
Hexagonal Closed Packed Structure
(HCP)