CHAPTER TWO
PERSPECTIVES ON TOURISM
2.1. Basic approaches to the study of Tourism
• Tourism commonly is approached through a variety of methods.
• There is little or no agreement on how the study of tourism should be
undertaken.
• This chapter introduces the different perspectives which describes
about the factors, processes, challenges and consequences of tourism.
Approaches to be Discussed:
• Geographical
• Behavioral perspectives
• Cultural and Sociological perspectives
• Institutional Approach
• Product Approach
• Managerial Approach
• Interdisciplinary approach
2.1.1. Geographical Approach
• Geography is a wide-ranging discipline interested in tourism and its
spatial aspects.
• The geographer specializes in the study of location, environment,
climate, landscape, and economic aspects.
• Geography has a symbiotic and existential relationship with tourism
since latter is a spatial process.
• Focus of Tourism Geography:
• Dispersion of tourism on the space
• Impacts of tourism on related areas
• Selection and justification of tourism destinations and development areas
• Rules of land use and planning in tourism zones
• Protection of tourism areas
• Geography's Role in Tourism
• For tourism industry, geography is not only the framework but also an
abundant source of input.
• Elements in physical geography (lakes, mountains, snow, sea, climate)
are exploited by tourism as natural attractions.
• Geography has a limitative and determinative role in touristic
movements:
• 24 hour time zones
• Dispersion of heat (temperature) on earth
• Topography and land shapes
• These determine routes of planes, contents and timing of package
tours, location of hotels and airports.
• Geography shapes tourist preferences and demand: Human-beings
seek to visit different geographies.
• The Geographer's Focus and Contribution
• The geographer’s approach to tourism sheds light on:
• The location of tourist areas
• The movements of people created by tourism locales
• The changes that tourism brings to the landscape
• Physical planning, and economic, social, and cultural problems
• Because tourism touches geography at so many points, geographers have
investigated the area more thoroughly than have scholars in many other
disciplines.
2.1.2. Behavioral perspectives of tourism
• Culture is obviously critical... behavior is influenced by culture, and
generalization is only possible within the bounds of a given cultural
context.
• Aggregate vs. Individual Behavior:
• Studies of behavior in the aggregate: The goal is to identify
regularities in overall patterns. Individual differences are thought of as
random variations.
• Example: "Spatial interaction models" or gravity models which
describe how the amount of interaction between two places increases
with the size of the places but decreases the further apart the places
are.
• Argument for Aggregate Approach:
• Spatial behavior is so complex as to be extremely difficult to study at
the individual level.
• Studies of individual behavior are inefficient and time-consuming.
Criticism of Aggregate Approach:
• Studies of aggregate behavior have little predictive power because no
causal links are established.
• The approach ignores things like cognition and values which are
undoubtedly important.
• The Need: An approach focused on the individual which recognizes
that humans are reflexive actors who reflect upon their behavior, but
are also constrained by structures.
• Actor-Oriented (Micro-Scale) Behavioral Approaches
• These approaches are sometimes known as micro-scale behavioral
approaches or actor-oriented approaches.
• Origins: In models of micro-economic behavior which assume that
individuals are rational economic actors.
• Evolution: Became more realistic by hypothesizing:
• Bounded rationality: The fact that individuals do not know
everything.
• Satisficing: The fact that individuals settle for satisfactory rather
• Emphasis: On how information is filtered from the environment as a
result of personality, cultural forces, and cognitive factors and how
that information is used to arrive at decisions.
2.1.3. The interdisciplinary approach
• This approach embraces virtually all aspects of our society.
• Examples of Disciplinary Approaches within it:
• Anthropological approach: For cultural and heritage tourism.
• Psychological approach: To determine the best way to promote and
market tourism products.
• Political science approach: Because tourists cross borders and
require passports and visas from government offices.
• Legal approach: Because legislative bodies create the laws,
regulations, and legal environment for the tourist industry.
• Passenger transportation as another approach.
• Conclusion: Tourism is so vast, so complex, and so multifaceted that
it is necessary to have a number of approaches.
2.1.4. Product Approach
• This approach involves the study of various tourism products and how
they are produced, marketed, and consumed.
• Methodology: For example, one might study an airline seat—how it is
created, the people who are engaged in buying and selling it, how it is
financed, how it is advertised, and so on. This is repeated for other
services.
• Disadvantage: The product approach tends to be too time-consuming;
it does not allow the student to grasp the fundamentals of tourism
quickly.
• 2.1.6. Managerial Approach
• Managerial approach is firm-oriented (microeconomic).
• Focus: On the management activities necessary to operate a tourist
enterprise, such as:
• Planning
• Research
• Pricing
• Advertising
• Control
• It is a popular approach, using insights gleaned from other approaches
and disciplines.
• Managerial objectives and procedures must be geared to change to
meet shifts in the tourism environment.
2.1.8. Sociological Approach
• Tourism tends to be a social activity.
• Sociologists have studied the tourism behavior of individuals and
groups of people and the impact of tourism on society.
• This approach examines: Social classes, habits, and customs of both
hosts and guests.
• The sociology of leisure is a relatively undeveloped field.
• As tourism continues to make a massive impact on society, it will be
studied more from a social point of view.
• Key Contributors:
• Dean MacCannell (The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class)
• Erik Cohen
• Graham M. S. Dann
2.1.9. Cultural perspectives
• The concept of cultural tourism is very complex and there are
numerous definitions.
• A Detailed Definition:
“Cultural tourism can be defined as that activity which enables people
to experience the different ways of life of other people, thereby
gaining at first hand an understanding of their customs, traditions, the
physical environment,….
…..the intellectual ideas and those places of architectural, historic,
archaeological or other cultural significance which remain from earlier
times.”
• Difference from Recreational Tourism: It seeks to gain an
understanding or appreciation of the nature of the place being visited.
Evolution of Definitions
• 1976 ICOMOS Definition (Simpler):
• Focused on the discovery of monuments and sites.
• Highlighted a positive effect: it contributes to their maintenance and
protection because of the socio-cultural and economic benefits.
• Other Experience-Focused Definitions:
• Australian Office of National Tourism: "Cultural tourism is tourism
that focuses on the culture of a destination - the lifestyle, heritage, arts,
industries and leisure pursuits of the local population."
• ICOMOS Charter: "Cultural tourism may be defined as that movement
which involves people in the exploration or the experience of the
diverse ways of life of other people..."
• Others: "an entertainment and educational experience..." and "people
travelling specifically for the sake of either experiencing another
culture..."
2.1.10. Institutional Approach
• The institutional approach considers the various intermediaries and
institutions that perform tourism activities.
• It emphasizes institutions such as the travel agency.
• This approach requires an investigation of:
• The organization, operating methods, problems, costs, and economic place of
travel agents.
• These institutions act on behalf of the customer, purchasing services
from airlines, rental car companies, hotels, and so on.