Research Process
Topic
Background to the study
Problem/Opportunity
Aims and Objectives
Research Questions
Hypothesis
Limitations and delimitations
Literature Review
Research Methodology
Analysis, presentation of data and interpretation
Summary of findings, conclusions and
Research Proposal
Title\Topic
Introduction\Background to the study
Statement of the problem
Objectives
Research Questions
Hypothesis
Significance of the Study
Scope of the study\Delimitations
Limitations
Assumptions of the Study
Research Methodology and Design
Data Analysis Techniques and Procedure
Conclusion
The proposal mirrors the basic
phases in the research process
Background to the study
Discusses the problem as it has occurred (in
practice or theory) paying attention to the specific
subject of interest
Forexample, a study entitled “Export challenges
of horticulture enterprises in Zimbabwe means
the problem looks at how the horticulture industry
has come to where it is today
Therationale for such discussion is to give
a reader a reader a foundation or basis on
which to conceptualise the problem
In
discussing problem background brings out
prominence where the real issue (the problem) exist
within the phenomenon being studies
Thisbackground should provide the rationale why
this subject of the study is important
Delineate
the time frame of analysis in the
background . Delineation provide scope to the
study”
Problem Identification
The problem is strongly linked to the topic
Identify and expressly identify the problem
This is a concise statement discussing the problem in
succinct terms
Should bring out the exact nature of the research
problem
Is the problem relevant?
Occupy a certain geographical area
One way to improve formulation of the
research problem is through a research
question
How widespread is the problem?
Who is affected by the problem?
Who will benefit from the solution
(objectives of pursuing the problem)
Problem Statement
The problem statement should be clear
It should be justifiable on its own
It is the foundation of the research
Check for the problem which is
current/existing and Recurrent/Persistent
Note your empirical situation (narrow down
your search….eg District)
Note the phenomenon of interest
It should be a brief description
Evaluating research problem
Following questions must be answered affirmatively
before the study is under Taken:
1. Is the Problem Researchable?
2. Is the Problem New?
3. Is the Problem Significant?
4. Is the Problem Feasible for the Particular Researcher?
Research Objectives
Outline the Aim of the study in general
terms- General\Main objective
Specific objectives\Sub Objectives…falling
under the main objective
Indicate the variable to be examined and
measured
Clearly express the objectives in measurable
terms
Objectives must spell out some action (Make
use of verbs)
Toestablish, To examine, To assess, To
identify, to find out, to calculate
Should be presented in logical sequence
They should be static once the study work
begins
SMART
E.g. To identify the factors associated with
high unemployment rates in Zimbabwe
E.g. To identify the factors associated with
creative accounting in company A
Hypothesis
A prediction of relationship between two or more
variables
a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis
of limited evidence as a starting point for further
investigation
a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis
of limited evidence as a starting point for further
investigation
Can be verified or disqualified
NULL Hypothesis Vs Alternative
Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis
Denoted by H0 Denoted by H1
The hypothesis the The hypothesis the
researcher tries to disprove researcher tries to accept or
or reject or nullify prove
States that there is no States that there is
statistically significant statistically significant
relationship between relationship between
variables variables
If HO is accepted, no If H1 is accepted, changes
changes will be made in the will be made to the opnions
opinions or actions or actions
HYPOTHESIS TESTS
A statistical hypothesis is an assumption about a
population parameter.
This assumption may or may not be true.
The best way to determine whether a statistical test is
true would be to examine the whole population.
HYPOTHESIS TESTS CONT’D
Since that is often impractical, researchers examine a
random sample from the population
If sample data re not consistent with the statistical
hypothesis, the hypothesis is rejected.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESES
There are 2 types of hypotheses:
Null hypothesis denoted by H0, is usually the hypothesis
that sample observations result purely from chance. It is
is a hypothesis of no difference, and usually the opposite
of what we actually believe.
Always stated as an equality
E.g. H0 : There is no significant difference in the weight of
men and women at MSU
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
Alternative hypothesis denoted by AH or H1, is the
hypothesis that sample observations are influenced by
some non-random cause.
Stated as <,> or≠
E.g. Alternative hypothesis, AH or H1: There is a
significant difference in the weight of men and women at
MSU.
PROCEDURE FOR HYPOTHESIS
TESTING
1. State the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis.
2. State the significance level
3. Evaluate the test statistic- calculate t value from your data
Hypothesis cont’d
[Link] a decision on the null hypothesis
either you reject the H0, and accept the AH as a better explanation of
the data or, you accept the null hypothesis.
5. How do we decide whether to accept or reject NH.? The decision is
based on the probability of making and error when
SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL
Significance level- The probability that we are prepared
to accept for rejecting a null hypothesis that is really
true.
Hypothesis tests are tested at a certain significance level
determined before hand by the researcher.
By convention, 0.05 (5%) is considered significant, 0.01
(1%) as very significant and 0.001 (0.1%) as highly
significant.
Significance Tests
If the significance tests generate
95% or 99% likelihood that the
results do not fit the Null hypothesis,
then it is rejected in favour of the
alternative …otherwise the H1 is
accepted
Acceptance/rejection criteria
If the observed test statistic is greater than the value tabulated for
the significance level, then it falls in the critical region and we may
reject the null hypothesis.
i.e. if t > PT , reject H0
if t < PT , accept H0
P-VALUE
The decision rules for rejecting a null hypothesis are made with
reference to a P- value or with reference to a region of acceptance
P-value – the strength of evidence in support of a null hypothesis is
measured by the P-value
Suppose the test statistic is equal to S. The P-value is the probability
of observing a test statistic as extreme as S, assuming the null
hypothesis is true. If the P-value is less than the significance level, we
reject H0
REGION OF ACCEPTANCE
The region of acceptance is a range of values. If the test statistic falls
within the region of acceptance, the null hypothesis is not rejected.
The region of acceptance is defined so that the chance of making a
Type I error is equal to the significance level.
REGION OF REJECTION
The set of values outside the region of acceptance is called the region
of rejection.
If the test statistic falls within the region of rejection, the null
hypothesis is rejected.
In such cases we say that the null hypothesis has been rejected at
the alpha level of significance.
These approaches are equivalent. Some statistics books use the P-
value approach and others use the region of acceptance approach.
Assumptions about some characteristics
of a population which must be accepted
or rejected on the basis of empirical
evidence
E.g.
There is a positive relationship
between CEO compensation and firm
performance
Background to the study
Discusses the problem as it has occurred (in
practice or theory) paying attention to the specific
subject of interest
Forexample, a study entitled “Export challenges
of horticulture enterprises in Zimbabwe means
the problem looks at how he horticulture industry
has come to where it is today
Therationale for such discussion is to give
a reader a reader a foundation or basis on
which to conceptualise the problem
In
discussing problem background brings out
prominence where the real issue (the problem) exist
within the phenomenon being studies
Thisbackground should provide the rationale why
this subject of the study is important
Delineate
the time frame of analysis in both the
background . Delineation provide scope to the
study”