CHAPTER

Atoms, Mo TWO
lecules an
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Essential Qu Io n s
estion
s: How and
Theory chan why has the
ged over tim Atomic
molecular m e? How can
otion of the we describe
states of ma the
tter?
 [Link], Molecules and Ions

Objectives:
At the end of this chapter students will be able to
 Define the atomic mass unit and average atomic mass
 Calculate average atomic mass and isotopic abundance
 Represent the bonding arrangement of atoms within molecules using
structural formulas
 Predict the general properties of elements based on their location within
the periodic table
 Predict the type of compound formed from elements based on their location
within the periodic table
 Derive names for common types of inorganic compounds using a
systematic approach
 2.1. Atomic structure and symbolism
This chapter introduces the fundamental language
of chemistry
Atom are the fundamental building blocks of
matter, which takes part in chemical reaction
 Atom may or not exist free in nature.
 Atom consist of only one nucleus.
 Atoms of one element are different from the other
element
 2.1. Atomic structure and symbolism
 All atoms have two regions.
1. Nucleus, which is in the centre of the atom that contains most
of the mass of the atom
 it contains two subatomic particles protons and neutrons,
 It has positive charge because of protons
2. Electron cloud: the outer region of the atom surrounds the
nucleus & takes up most of the space of the atom which holds
its electrons (the subatomic particle with a negative charge and
relatively no mass).
 Properties of subatomic particles
[Link]
 It bears negative charge
 They move around the nucleus in shells.
 The mass of electron is very small.
 Lightest particles
b. Proton
 It bears the positive charge and
 It stays at the nucleus with neutrons.
 Atoms of different elements have different
number of protons. Atoms of the same element
have the same number of protons.
c. Neutron has no charge, i.e. it is neutral. It is
placed in the nucleus with proton. 5
Properties of Subatomic Particles
 Atomic Number and Mass Number

 The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the

nucleus of each atom of an element.
 The chemical identity of an atom can be determined solely from
its atomic number.
 The mass number (A) is the total number of nucleons
(neutrons + protons) of an atom of an element.
 Cont….

 Atoms are electrically neutral if they contain the same

number of positively charged protons and negatively
charged electrons.
 When the numbers of these subatomic particles are not
equal, the atom is electrically charged and is called an ion.

Atomic charge = number of protons − number of electrons

 An atom that gains one or more electrons will exhibit a

negative charge -anion.
 an atom loses one or more electrons- cation
For example, a neutral sodium atom (Z = 11) has 11
electrons. If this atom loses one electron, it will become a
cation with a 1+ charge (11 − 10 = 1+). A neutral oxygen
atom (Z = 8) has eight electrons, and if it gains two electrons
it will become an anion with a 2− charge (8 −10 = 2−)
 2.1.1. Chemical Symbols and Isotopes
 Chemical Symbols- is an abbreviation that we use to indicate
an element or an atom of an element.
 Most symbols have One or two letter
e.g. Mercury =Hg Fluorine= F
 First letter is CAPATALIZED, the second is not
– Silicon Si Argon Ar
 Not always first two letters of element
– Zinc Zn Chlorine Cl
 Sometimes based on other languages
– Gold (aurum) Au Iron (ferrum) Fe
 Cont….

Table2.2: Some Common Elements and their Symbols

 Isotopes

 Isotopes – are atoms that have the same number of protons, but different
numbers of neutrons. Eg.
 Because isotopes of an element have different numbers of neutrons, they
also have different mass numbers.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different masses.
In terms of subatomic particles, isotopes have different numbers of neutrons
 Isotopes are chemically identical because they have identical numbers of
protons and electrons, which are the subatomic particles responsible for
chemical behavior.
 Isobars: atoms that have the same mass number but different atomic
number (so they are different elements). e.g.

 Isotones: are atoms of different elements having different atomic numbers

but same neutron’s numbers. Same n 40
Ca, 42
Ti, 44
Cr
 Isoelectronic are atoms of different elements having different atomic
11
numbers but same electron numbers. Examples N , F , Mg , Al -3 -1 +2 +3
 Cont….

Nuclear Compositions of Atoms of hydrogen

2.1.2. Atomic mass unit and average atomic mass
 The unit of measurement for an atom is an AMU. It stands for
atomic mass unit. One AMU is equal to the mass of one proton.
 The atomic mass of a single atom is approximately equal to its
mass number (a whole number).
 However, the average masses of atoms of most elements are
not whole numbers because most elements exist naturally as
mixtures of two or more isotopes.
 Cont….

Example 1. The element boron is composed of two

isotopes: About 19.9% of all boron atoms are 10B with a
mass of 10.0129 amu, and the remaining 80.1% are 11B
with a mass of 11.0093 amu.
o The average atomic mass for boron is calculated to be:
Boron average mass= (0.199x10.0129amu)
+(0.801x11.0093amu)=1.99amu+8.82amu=10.81amu
Example 2.
A meteorite found in central Indiana contains traces of
the noble gas neon picked up from the solar wind during
the meteorite’s trip through the solar system. Analysis of
a sample of the gas showed that it consisted of 91.84%
20Ne (mass 19.9924 amu), 0.47% 21Ne (mass 20.9940
amu), and 7.69% 22Ne (mass 21.9914 amu). What is the
average mass of the neon in the solar wind?
 2.2. Chemical Formulas
Those who do chemistry for a living use

CHEMICAL FORMULAS

to express composition of molecules and salts (i.e., ionic compounds)

in terms of chemical symbols that represent the elements.

Composition: Composition:

H2O
Which elements are Combining ratios of the
present--hydrogen (H) elements involved --
& oxygen (O) 2 hydrogens : 1 oxygen
2H:1O

(water)
 Molecular formulas is a representation of a molecule
that uses chemical symbols to indicate the types of
atoms followed by subscripts to show the number of
atoms of each type in the molecule.
 The structural formula for a compound gives the
same information as its molecular formula (the types
and numbers of atoms in the molecule) but also shows
how the atoms are connected in the molecule.

Figure 2.4 A methane molecule can be represented as (a) a

molecular formula, (b) a structural formula, (c) a balland-stick
model, and (d) a space-filling model. Carbon and hydrogen atoms
are represented by black and white spheres, respectively.
 The subscript to the right of the symbol of an
element tells the number of atoms of that
element in one molecule of the compound.

 Although many elements consist of discrete, individual atoms,

some exist as molecules made up of two or more atoms of the
element chemically bonded together.

 For example, most samples of the elements hydrogen, oxygen,

and nitrogen are composed of molecules that contain two atoms
each (called diatomic molecules) and thus have the molecular
formulas H2, O2, and N2,respectively.

 Other elements commonly found as diatomic molecules are

fluorine (F2), chlorine (Cl2), bromine (Br2), and iodine (I2).
 Cont….
 The most common form of the element sulfur is
composed of molecules that consist of eight atoms of
sulfur; its molecular formula is S8 (Figure 2.5).

Figure 2.5: A molecule of sulfur is composed of eight

sulfur atoms and is therefore written as S8. It can be
represented as (a) a structural formula, (b) a ball-and-
stick model, and (c) a space-filling model. Sulfur atoms
are represented by yellow spheres.
 Cont….
 It is important to note that a subscript following a symbol and a number in front
of a symbol do not represent the same thing;
 H2 and 2H represent distinctly different species.
 H2 is a molecular formula; it represents a diatomic molecule of hydrogen,
consisting of two atoms of the element that are chemically bonded together.
 The expression 2H, on the other hand, indicates two separate hydrogen atoms
that are not combined as a unit. The expression 2H2 represents two molecules of
diatomic hydrogen

Figure 2.6: The symbols H, 2H, H2, and 2H2 represent very different entities.
 CHEMICAL FORMULAS

2
types

MOLECULAR EMPIRICAL

C6H12O6 glucose CH2O

Exact no. of atoms Elements present
of each element in simplest
in smallest unit whole-number ratio
of substance of their atoms
A molecular formula shows the exact
number of atoms of each element in the
smallest unit of a substance

An empirical formula shows the simplest

whole-number ratio of the atoms in a substance

Molecular Empirical
H2O H2O
C6H12O6 CH2O

O3 O
N2H4 NH2
 Cont….

 If we know a compound’s formula, we can easily determine the

empirical formula.

 For example, the molecular formula for acetic acid, the

component that gives vinegar its sharp taste, is C 2H 4O 2. This
formula indicates that a molecule of acetic acid contains two
carbon atoms, four hydrogen atoms, and two oxygen atoms.
The ratio of atoms is 2:4:2.

 Dividing by the lowest common denominator (2) gives the

simplest, whole-number ratio of atoms, 1:2:1, so the empirical
formula is CH 2O.

 Note that a molecular formula is always a whole number

multiple of an empirical formula.
 Cont….

Exercise A molecule of metaldehyde (a pesticide used for snails and slugs) contains
8 carbon atoms, 16 hydrogen atoms, and 4 oxygen atoms. What are the molecular
and empirical formulas of metaldehyde?
 [Link] periodic table
• Chemists organize elements according to their patterns and placed
in special arrangement is called periodic table.
• A tabular arrangement of elements in rows and columns,
highlighting the regular repetition of properties of the
elements, is called a periodic table.
• The idea of arranging the elements according to their elements was
tried by many scientists.
• Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834–1907) is the first person who
arrange the elements in periodic table according to their mass
number and he state that “the properties of an element is the
periodic function of their mass number” .
 He also predict the properties of some of elements which are
unknown in his period and left space for this unknown elements in
24
periodic table.
 Limitations of Dmitri Mendeleev

The Mendeleev's periodic table was not accepted because of the following
limitations, but it is corner stone for the development of modern periodic
table.

1. Mendeleev don't known the presence of isotope and doesn't explain the
position of isotopes in periodic table.

2. One group of elements that Mendeleev did not anticipate was the noble
gases. He left no blanks for them. As the result modern periodic table was
developed.
 Modern periodic table was developed, which states that “the properties
of an element is the periodic function of their atomic number and no
element can have the same atomic number”.
25
 Cont….
 The modern periodic table contains 18 groups (family) and 7 periods
(series).
 In the periodic table, the vertical groups bring together elements with
similar properties. The horizontal periods of the table are arranged in order
of increasing atomic number from left to right.
Group: is the vertical column of the periodic table and the valence electrons are
used as parameter to arrange a group.
Period: is the horizontal row in periodic table and the number of shell
(principal quantum number, n) is used as parameter to arrange the elements
in period.

26
prepared by E.A 27
 On the basis of electronic configuration elements can be
classified in to three regions as representative elements, transition
metals and inner transition (rare earth metals).

1. Representative elements (s and p block elements)

 Are elements that have s and p valence orbital's for the
accommodation of their last electrons. The elements that have s-
valence orbital's are grouped under s-block elements and the
elements that have p-valence orbital's are grouped under p-bock
[Link] : 3 Li = [He]2s1 11 Na = [Ne]3s1

13 Al = [Ne]3s 2
3p1
17 Cl = [Ne]3s 2
3p5
2. The transition metals
 These are elements in which their last electronic configuration enters the
d-orbital and are called d-block elements

Example : 26 Fe = [Ar] 4s23d6 29 Cu = [Ar]4s23d9

 All are metals and found in center of periodic table

 Begin in fourth row and characterized by their multiple oxidation states.

e.g.
 Fe2+ and Fe3+
 Cu+ and Cu2+
 Mn2+, Mn3+, Mn4+, Mn5+, Mn6+, and Mn7+

29
Regions of periodic table based on the electron configuration as s, p, d
and f - block

30
 3. Rare earth metals
• Are the f-block elements since their last electronic configuration go to the f-
orbital and contains two rows i.e. the lanthanides and actinide series.
 Based on the properties, elements are grouped into metals, metalloids and non-
metals.
Metals : are elements that have the following properties
 Solids at room temperature
– Melting points (mp) > 25 °C
– Hg only liquid metal (mp = –39 °C)
– Tungsten (W) (mp = 3400 °C) Highest mp for a metal
– Can conduct electricity (due to movable electrons)
– Metallic luster (refractive nature is due to variable oxidation state )
– Malleable and ductile

31
 Malleable: the property of metals that can change in to sheets up on
hammering. Ductile: the property of metal that can draw in to wire.

Non-metals

• Are substance having the following properties.

– Don’t conduct electricity (insulator)
– They are neither malleable nor ductile
– Solid non-metals are brittle in nature
• Exist mostly as compounds rather than as pure elements
• Many are gases
– Monatomic (Noble gas) He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
– Diatomic H2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2
• Some are solids: I2, Se8, S8, P4, C
– Three forms of carbon (graphite, coal, diamond)
• One is liquid: Br 2
32
Metalloids

• Eight elements are classified as metalloids

• Located on diagonal line between metals and nonmetals such as B, Si,

Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po, At

Properties

– Possess the property of both metals and non-metals

– Metallic shine and brittle like non-metal

– It has semiconductors conduct electricity but not as well as metals

(Silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge)).

33
 2.4. Ionic and Molecular Compounds

IONS
Ion is an atom having electric charge
• When atoms lose or gain electrons, they
become ions

Loses electrons
+
Positive ion, cation

atom

_ Negative ion, anion

Gains electrons

An atom may gain or lose electrons

Predicting Ionic Charge
• Metals tend to form cations (group 1 and 2)
• Non-metals tend to form anions.(group 5, 6, 7 )

Be2+
Cont….
 Cont….

 Monatomic ions- they are ions formed from only one

atom.
Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-
 polyatomic ions-which contains more than one
atom OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-

 Oxyanions are polyatomic ions that contain one or more

oxygen atoms.

Table 2.3: Common Polyatomic Ions

Common Cation Charges
Common Anions

© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

• Table 2.4: Common Polyatomic Ions
 Cont….
 -ate and -ite are suffixes designating polyatomic
ions containing more or fewer oxygen atoms.
 Per- (short for “hyper”) and hypo- (meaning
“under”) are prefixes meaning more oxygen atoms
than -ate and fewer oxygen atoms than -ite,
respectively.
For example, perchlorate is ClO4−, chlorate is ClO3−,
chlorite is ClO2− and hypochlorite is ClO−.
 Unfortunately, the number of oxygen atoms
corresponding to a given suffix or prefix is not
consistent;
for example, nitrate is NO3− while sulfate is SO42−.
 2.4.1. Formation of Ionic Compounds
 A compound that contains ions and is held together
by ionic bonds is called an ionic compound.
 Ionic “bond” is the attraction between oppositely
charged ions (generally metals and nonmetals)
 The sum of the charges on the cation and anion in
each formula unit must equal zero
 We can use this observation to help us write the
formula of an ionic compound.
 The formula of an ionic compound must have
a ratio of ions such that the numbers of
positive and negative charges are equal.
 Writing Ionic Compounds Formulas

Because compounds are electrically neutral,

one can determine the formula of a
compound this way:
– The charge on the cation becomes the subscript
on the anion.
– The charge on the anion becomes the subscript
on the cation.
– IONIC ONLY: If these subscripts are not in the
lowest whole-number ratio, divide them by the
greatest common factor.
 Molecule
A molecule is made up of two or more atoms
chemically combined together.

Molecules of Element
•Molecules are made up of the same kinds of
atoms
Molecules of Compounds
•Molecules are made up of two or more
different kinds of atoms
 MOLECULES OF ELEMENT

MOLECULES OF COMPOUND
 2.4.2. Formation of Molecular Compounds
 Molecular compounds (covalent compounds) result
when atoms share rather than transfer (gains or
losses), electrons.
 Under normal conditions, molecular compounds often
exist as gases, low-boiling liquids, and low-melting
solids, although many important exceptions exist.
 Whereas ionic compounds are usually formed when a
metal and a nonmetal combine, covalent compounds
are usually formed by a combination of nonmetals.
 Two hydrogen atoms (1) form the molecule of the
element hydrogen H2

+ 
Cont….
 2.5. Chemical Nomenclature
 Nomenclature - a collection of rules for naming things,
is important in science and in many other situations.
 used to name simple ionic and molecular compounds,
such as NaCl, CaCO3, and N2O4.
 The simplest of these are binary compounds, those
containing only two elements, but we will also
consider how to name ionic compounds containing
polyatomic ions, and one specific, very important
class of compounds known as acids
 We will limit our attention here to inorganic
compounds, compounds that are composed principally
of elements other than carbon, and will follow the
nomenclature guidelines proposed by IUPAC.
 Cont….
2.5.1. Ionic compounds
 To name an inorganic compound, we need to consider
the answers to several questions.

 First, is the compound ionic or molecular? If the

compound is ionic, does the metal form ions of
only one type (fixed charge) or more than one
type (variable charge)?

 Are the ions monatomic or polyatomic? If the

compound is molecular, does it contain hydrogen? If
so, does it also contain oxygen? From the answers we
derive, we place the compound in an appropriate
category and then name it accordingly.
 Cont….
[Link]. Compounds Containing Only Monatomic Ions
 The name of a binary compound containing
monatomic ions consists of the name of the cation
(the name of the metal) followed by the name of the
anion (the name of the nonmetallic element with its
ending replaced by the suffix -ide).
Table 2.5: Names of Some Ionic Compounds

NaCl, Sodium chloride Na2O,sodium oxide

KBr, potassium bromide CdS, cadmium sulfide
CaI2,Calcium Iodide Mg3N2, magnesium nitride
CsF,Cesium Fluoride Ca3P2,Calcium Phosphide
LiCl,lithium chloride Al4C3,aluminum carbide
NaCl,Sodium chloride Na2O,sodium oxide
[Link].Compounds Containing
polyatomic Ions
 Compounds containing polyatomic ions are named
similarly to those containing only monatomic ions, i.e.
by naming first the cation and then the anion
Table2.6: Names of Some Polyatomic Ionic Compounds
[Link].Compounds Containing a Metal Ion with a
Variable Charge
 Most of the transition metals and some main group
metals can form two or more cations with different
charges.
 Compounds of these metals with nonmetals are
named with the same method as compounds in the
first category, except the charge of the metal ion is
specified by a Roman numeral in parentheses after
the name of the metal.
 The charge of the metal ion is determined from the
formula of the compound and the charge of the
anion.
e.g. FeCl2 -iron(II) chloride
FeCl3 - iron(III) chloride
Table2.8: Some Ionic Compounds with Variably Charged
Metal Ions

 Out-of-date nomenclature used the suffixes –ic and –

ous to designate metals with higher and lower charges,
respectively
 FeCl3, was previously called ferric chloride, and iron(II)
chloride, FeCl2, was known as ferrous chloride. Though
this naming convention has been largely abandoned by
the scientific community, it remains in use by some
segments of industry.
 [Link]. Ionic Hydrates
 Ionic compounds that contain water molecules as integral
components of their crystals are called hydrates.
 The name for an ionic hydrate is derived by adding a term
to the name for the anhydrous (meaning “not hydrated”)
compound that indicates the number of water molecules
associated with each formula unit of the compound.
 The added word begins with a Greek prefix denoting the
number of water molecules and ends with “hydrate.”
 e.g. the anhydrous compound copper(II) sulfate also exists
as a hydrate containing five water molecules and named
copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate.
 Washing soda is the common name for a hydrate of
sodium carbonate containing 10 water molecules; the
systematic name is sodium carbonate decahydrate.
Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate CuSO 4∙5H2O
Sodium carbonate decahydrate Na 2CO3∙10H2O
 cont……

Table 2.9: Nomenclature Prefixes

Number Number Prefix

1(sometimes mono- 6 hexa-

omitted)

2 di- 7 hepta-

3 tri- 8 octa-

4 tetra- 9 nona-

5 penta- 10 deca-
 2.5.2. Molecular Compounds
 The bonding characteristics of inorganic molecular
compounds are different from ionic compounds and
they are named using a different system as well.
 The charges of cations and anions dictate their ratios
in ionic compounds, so specifying the names of the
ions provides sufficient information to determine
chemical formulas.
 However, because covalent bonding allows for
significant variation in the combination ratios of the
atoms in a molecule, the names for molecular
compounds must explicitly identify these ratios.
 [Link]. Compounds Composed of Two Elements
 When two nonmetallic elements form a molecular
compound, several combination ratios are often
possible.
 For example, carbon and oxygen can form the
compounds CO and CO2.
 Since these are different substances with different
properties, they cannot both have the same name
(they cannot both be called carbon oxide).
 To deal with this situation, we use a naming method
that is somewhat similar to that used for ionic
compounds, but with added prefixes to specify the
numbers of atoms of each element.
 Cont….
 The name of the more metallic element (the one
farther to the left and/or bottom of the periodic
table) is first, followed by the name of the more
nonmetallic element (the one farther to the right
and/or top) with its ending changed to the suffix –
ide.
 When only one atom of the first element is
present, the prefix mono- is usually deleted from
that part.
 Thus, CO is named carbon monoxide,
 CO2 is called carbon dioxide.
 Cont….

Table2.10: Names of Some Molecular Compounds Composed of Two

Elements
 Cont….

[Link]. Binary Acids

Binary acids- are certain molecular compounds in which hydrogen is

combined with a second non metallic element.

 If the compound is a binary acid (comprised of hydrogen and one other

nonmetallic element):
1. The word “hydrogen” is changed to the prefix hydro-
2. The other nonmetallic element name is modified by adding the suffix -ic
3. The word “acid” is added as a second word

 For example, when the gas HCl (hydrogen chloride) is dissolved in water,
the solution is called hydrochloric acid.
 Cont….

Table2.11: Names of Some Simple Acids

Name of gas Name of acid

HF(g),Hydrogen fluoride HF(aq), hydrofluoric acid

HCl(g),Hydrogen chloride HCl(aq),hydrochloric acid

HBr(g), Hydrogen bromide HBr(aq), hydrobromic acid

HI(g), Hydrogen iodide HI(aq), hydroiodic acid

H2S(g), Hydrogen sulfide H2S(aq), hydrosulfuric acid

 Cont….

[Link]. Oxy acids

Oxy acids- are acids which contains the elements; hydrogen, oxygen, and a
third element (almost always a non-metal).
 To name oxyacids:
1. Omit “hydrogen”
2. Start with the root name of the anion
3. Replace –ate with –ic, or –ite with –ous
4. Add “acid”
 For example, consider H2CO3 (which you might be tempted to call
“hydrogen carbonate”).
To name this correctly, “hydrogen” is omitted; the –ate of carbonate is
replace with –ic; and acid is added-so its name is carbonic acid.
 Cont….
 There are some exceptions to the general naming method
e.g.H2SO4 is called sulfuric acid, not sulfic acid, and H2SO3 is sulfurous acid,
not sulfous acid).
Table 2.12: Names of Common Oxyacids

Formula Anion Name Acid name

HC2H3O2 Acetate Acetic acid
HNO3 Nitrate Nitric acid
HNO2 Nitrite Nitrous acid
HClO4 Perchlorate Perchloric acid
H2CO3 Carbonate Carbonic acid
H2SO4 Sulfate Sulfuric acid
H2SO3 Sulfite Sulfurous acid
H3PO4 Phosphate Phosphoric acid