How Computers Represent Data
• All symbols, pictures or words must be reduced to a
string of binary digits.
• A binary digit is called a bit and represents either a 0
or a 1.
• These are the only digits in the binary or base 2,
number system used by computers.
• A string of eight bits used to store one number or
character in a computer system is called a byte (see
Figure 0.2).
One byte for character A 01000001
The computer representation in ASCII for the name
Alice is
01000001 A
01001100 L
01001001 I
01000011 C
01000101 E
• To represent the numbers 0 through 9 and the
letters a through z and A through Z, computer
designers have created coding systems
consisting of several hundred standard codes.
• In one code, for instance, the binary number
01000001 stands for the letter A.
• Two common coding systems are Extended Binary
Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) and
American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII).
• EBCDIC represents every number, alphabetic
character, or special character with eight bits, used
primarily in IBM and other mainframe computers.
• ASCII was originally designed as a seven-bit code, but
most computers use eight-bit versions.
• ASCII is used in data transmission, PCs and
some larger computers.
• The computers store a picture by creating a
grid overlay of the picture.
• Each single point in this grid, or matrix is called
a pixel (picture element) and consists of a
number of bits.
Data Representation
• How is a letter converted to binary form and back?
Step 1.
The user presses Step 2.
the capital letter An electronic signal for the
D (shift+D key) capital letter D is sent to the
on the keyboard. system unit.
Step 4. Step 3.
After processing, the binary The signal for the capital letter D
code for the capital letter D is is converted to its ASCII binary
converted to an image, and code (01000100) and is stored in
displayed on the output device. memory for processing.
The CPU and Primary Storage
• The CPU is the part of the computer system
where the manipulation of symbols, numbers,
and letters occurs, and it controls the other
parts of the computer system.
The CPU
Processor
• What is the central processing unit (CPU)?
Interprets Processor
and carries
Control
Control Arithmetic
Arithmetic
out basic instructions Unit
Unit Logic
Logic Unit
Unit (ALU)
(ALU)
that operate a computer
Instructions
Control unit directs and Data
coordinates operations in Informatio
n
computer
Arithmetic logic unit Input Output
Devices
Data Memory Information
Devices
(ALU) performs
arithmetic, comparison,
Instructions
and logical operations Data
Also Informatio
called the processor n
Storage
Devices
Processor
• What is a machine cycle?
Four operations of the CPU comprise a machine cycle
Step 1. Fetch
Obtain program instruction
or data item from memory
Memory
Step 2.
Step 4. Store Decode
Write result to memory Translate
instruction into
Processor commands
ALU Control Unit
Step 3.
Execute
Carry out command
• Three kinds of busses linked between the CPU,
primary storage and the other devices in the
computer system:
– Data bus
• Pass information in bi-directional.
– Address bus
• Transmits signals for locating a given address in primary
storage, indicating where data should be placed.
– Control bus
• Transmits signal specifying whether to read or write
data to or from primary storage address, input device
or output device.
• The characteristics of the CPU and primary
storage are very important in determining a
computer’s speed and capabilities
The Arithmetic-Logic Unit and Control
Unit
• An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control
unit is one of the core components of all
central processing units.
• The ALU performs the computer’s principal
logical and arithmetic operations.
• It adds, subtracts, multiples, and divides,
determining whether a number is positive,
negative, or zero.
• ALU must be able to determine when one quantity is
greater than or less than another and when two
quantities are equal.
• The control unit coordinates and controls the other
parts of the computer system.
• It reads a stored program, one instruction at a time
and directs other components of the computer
system to perform the program’s required tasks.
Processor
• Which processor should you select?
The faster the processor, the more expensive the computer
Intel Processor Desired Clock Speed
Itanium or Xeon 1.3 GHz and up
3.0 GHz and up
Pentium family
2.4 GHz to 3.0 GHz
Up to 2.4 GHz
2.2 GHz and up
Celeron
Primary Storage
• Primary storage is a category of computer storage, often
called main memory.
• Has three functions:
– Stores all or part of the program that is being executed.
– Stores the operating system programs that manage the operation of
the computer.
– Holds data that the program is using.
• Data and program are placed in primary storage before
processing, between processing steps and after processing
has ended prior to being returned to secondary storage or
released as output.
Memory
• How is memory measured?
By number of bytes available for storage
Term Abbreviation Approximate Size
Kilobyte KB or K 1 thousand bytes
Megabyte MB 1 million bytes
Gigabyte GB 1 billion bytes
Terabyte TB 1 trillion bytes
• Modern primary storage devices include:
– Random access memory (RAM)
• is used for short-term storage of data or program
instructions. RAM is volatile. Its contents will be lost
when the computer’s electric supply is disrupted by a
power outage or when the computer turned off.
– Read-only memory (ROM)
• can only be read from. It cannot be written to. ROM
chips come from the manufacturer with programs
already burned in, or stored. ROM is used in general-
purpose computers to store important or frequently
used programs, such as computing routine for
calculating the square roots of numbers.
Memory
• What is random access memory (RAM)?
Memory chips that can be
read from and written
to by processor
Most RAM is
Also called
volatile, it is lost
main memory
when computer’s
or primary
power is
storage
turned off
The more RAM a
computer has, the
faster it responds
Memory
•How do program instructions transfer in and out of RAM
RAM Step 1. When you start the computer, certain
operating system files are loaded into RAM from
Operating system Operating system the hard disk. The operating system displays the
instructions interface user interface on the screen.
Step 2. When you start a Web browser, the
program’s instructions are loaded into RAM from
Web browser Web browser the hard disk. The Web browser window is
displayed on the screen.
instructions window
Step 3. When you start a word processing
program, the program’s instructions are loaded
Word processing into RAM from the hard disk. The word
Word processing processing program, along with the Web Browser
program
program window and certain operating system instructions are in
instructions RAM. The word processing program window is
displayed on the screen.
RAM
Step 4. When you quit a program, such as
the Web browser, its program instructions are
removed from RAM. The Web browser is no
longer displayed on the screen.
Web browser program Web browser
instructions are window is no
removed from RAM longer displayed on
desktop
Memory
What is read-only memory (ROM)?
Memory chips that store Nonvolatile memory, it is not
permanent data lost when computer’s
and instructions power is turned off
EEPROM
Three types: (electrically
erasable programmable
read-only memory)—
Firmware— Type of PROM
Manufactured with containing microcode
permanently written PROM
programmer
data, instructions, (programmable can erase
or information read-only
memory)—
Blank ROM
chip onto which
a programmer
can write permanently