RASTER DATA MODEL

UNIT-5

Civil Engineering Dept.

VBIT
Hyderabad
A Picture tells
Thousand Words
and
A Satellite image tells
Ten Thousand Words
 Raster Data Model

• The vector data model uses the geometric objects of

point, line and area to represent spatial features,
although ideal for discrete features with well defined
locations and shapes, it does not work well with
spatial phenomena that vary continuously over the
space such as precipitation, elevation, and soil
erosion.
• A better option for representing continuous
phenomena is the Raster Data Model
 What is an Image?
“An image is a pictorial representation of an object or a
scene”
Forms of Image
* Analog
* Digital
Analog images:
produced by Photographic sensors on paper based media
or transparent media
Variations in scene characteristics are represented as
variations in brightness (Grey shades)
 Spatial Data Models
• Raster
uses individual cells in a
matrix, or grid, format to
represent real world
entities

• Vector
uses coordinates to
store the shape of
spatial data objects
 A few synonyms for raster
• Surface
• GRID – the ArcInfo raster type
• Image (generic) – usually relates to satellite imagery
• Image (.img) – Raster data structure used by Erdas
Imagine, a common image-processing software package
• Array – more technical term associated with how raster
data are managed by computer programmers
• Matrix – rarely used because of it’s association with
mathematics, but it does occasionally come up
 Raster Data Model
• In the raster data model, the primary data object is the cell
or pixel
• You are familiar with these if you have used a digital
camera or viewed a computer monitor
 Raster data example
75 70 79 80 78

12 50 80 81 80

15 14 79 78 69

10 12 9 85 80

10 11 10 80 90
 Raster Data Model
•The raster data model represents the Earth’s
surface as an array of two-dimensional grid
cells, with each cell having an associated value:

1 2 3 5 8 Cell (x,y)

4 6 8 3 9 Cell value
rows

3 5 3 3 1
7 5 4 3 9
2 2 4 5 2 Cell size = resolution
columns
 Raster Data Model

• Every cell has a value, even if it is a

special value to indicate that there is “no
data” or that data is “missing” at that
location
• The values are numbers, either:
– actual values OR
– codes representing an attribute
 Cells - Absolute Values
•In this instance, the value of the cell represents
the value of the phenomenon of interest, e.g. the
elevation at that pixel location.
 Cells - Coded Values
•Here, the values stored in each cell are used as
substitutes for categorical data, e.g. land cover
classes:
 Grids and missing data

Clarke, K.C., Figure 3.8: GIS data layer as a grid with a large section of “missing
data,” in this case, the zeros in the ocean off of New York and New Jersey
 Cell Size & Resolution
• The size of the cells in the raster data model
determines the resolution at which features can be
represented
• The resolution can have an effect on which features
are represented in what locations:

10 m Resolution 5 m Resolution 1 m Resolution

 Raster Data Model - Objects
The raster data model still represents spatial objects,
but does so differently from the vector model:
Geographic Primitives
•Points
–0 dimensional
•Lines
–1 dimensional
•Polygons
–2 dimensional
 Raster Data Model - Points
1 point = 1 cell

+
+
+
+

What problems do we have here?

• 2 points in single pixel
• Point on the boundary between 2 or more cells
 Raster Data Model - Lines
A line = a series of connected cells that portray length

Problems with this representation?

• Lines may be narrower than pixels show
• Curved lines can loose detail (e.g., if the curves
are smaller than the pixel resolution can detect)
 Raster Data Model - Areas
Area = a group of connected cells that portray a shape

What problems could we have with this representation?

• What if a lake’s edge falls in a pixel?
• Area calculations loose accuracy
 Raster and Vector Data
Model Comparison
Real World Features Raster Vector
•
•
•

“A raster model tells what occurs everywhere, while a

vector model tells where every thing occurs”
 Rules for Assigning Cell Values
•Cell values can be assigned to cells accorded to some set of rules,
and selecting those rules differently can also effect the representation
of features:
 Raster Data Model - Storage
• There is a trade-off between spatial resolution and
data storage when we use the raster data model, e.g.
– 60 km satellite image with 10m cell size
• 6000 X 6000 = 36,000,000 cells
• 1 byte of attribute value (i.e. values 0-255)
• ~36 MB of disk storage!
– 60 km satellite image with 100m cell size
• 600 x 600 = 360,000 cells
• 360 KB of data… 1% the size of the other one
 Raster Data Model –
Compaction
• Because the raster data model records a
value for each and every cell in a grid, it is
very storage intensive, meaning that it
can use a lot of memory and disk space to
represent a theme
• Compaction techniques are used in
conjunction with raster data to reduce the
amount of required storage space to a
more manageable amount
 Vector Data Model -
Advantages
• It is a good representation of the world as we see it (our
visual systems automatically segments the world we see by
identifying objects)
• The topology of a layer can be fully described and explicitly
stored
• It is efficient in terms of data storage
– It only uses storage for objects of interest and does not
need to store values for the spaces in between
• No jaggy edges (raster has these on any diagonal)
• Useful for network analysis and modeling flows of linear
features
 Vector Data Model -
Disadvantages
• The data structure is more complex
– especially when you have fully encoded topology (e.g.,
using the arc-node model)
• It is more difficult to write computer programs to
manipulate data
• Spatial analysis operations can be more difficult
• Overlay operations are more difficult to implement.
 Raster Data Model -
Advantages
• The data structure is much simpler
• It is easy to overlay and combine layers
• It is easy to apply equations to the entire surface
(map algebra)
– Example: New_GRID = GRID_1 + GRID_2
• Raster data is easily integrated with satellite
(and other remotely-sensed) data
• Writing programs to manipulate raster is easier
• It is easy to do simulation modeling due to
uniform size and shape of grids (i.e. it is easy to
define uniform modeling units)
 Raster Data Model -
Disadvantages
• Because a value must be stored for each and
every cell in a grid, there is a great deal of
redundancy and large storage requirements
• Location can be captured only as accurately as
the resolution allows, which is determined by the
cell size
• Spatial analyses that are based on topological
relationships are not well supported by this model
• Changing resolution (i.e., cell size) can be
complicated
 Which Data Model Should You
Use?
• This can depend upon the type of data you’re using
and what goals you’re trying to achieve
– Vector model: discrete features such as rivers,
roads, buildings, and political boundaries
– Raster model: continuous features such as
elevation
• Usually your choice is determined by data
availability
Common Examples of Raster Data
• Elevation (Digital Elevation Model DEM)
– Derivatives: slope angle, slope aspect,
topographic moisture potential, terrain shape
(e.g., convex or concave)
• Climate data (modeled or interpolated
temperature and precipitation)
• Landcover (usually derived from classified
remotely sensed imagery)
Elements of Raster Data Model
• A raster data model is variously called a grid, a raster map, a
surface cover, or an image in GIS.
• Cell Value: Each cell in a raster carries a value, which
represents the characteristic of a spatial phenomenon at the
location denoted by its row and column. It can be a integer or
floating-point
• Cell Size: The cell size determines the resolution of the raster
data model. A cell size of 10 m means that each cell measures
100 Sq.m (10X10 M)
• Raster Bands: A raster may have a single band or multiple
bands.( May have 5,7, or more bands at each cell location)
• Spatial Reference : Raster data must have the spatial reference
information so that they can align spatially with other data sets
in a GIS (UTM Coordinates)
 Types of Raster data
• Satellite Imagery: The spatial resolution of a satellite image
relates to the ground pixel size.([Link] progeam)
• USGS Digital elevation model: It consists of an array of
uniformly spaced elevation data.
• Non-USGS: The stereo platter creates a 3-D model, which
allows the operator to compile elevation data(DEM)
• Global DEMs: DEMs at different resolutions are now
available on the global scale.
• Digital Orthophotos: Digitized image prepared from an aerial
photograph or remotely sensed data.
 Cont..
• Bi-Level scanned files: It is a scanned image containing
values of 1 or 0, it is from paper or Mylar maps that contain
boundaries of soils, parcels, and other features.
• Digital Raster Graphics: It is a scanned image of a USGS
topographic map.
• Graphic Files: Maps, Photograps, and images can be stored
as digital graphic files. Many popular graphic files are in raster
format, Tiff(Tagged image file format), GIF (Graphic
interchange format), JPEG(Joint photographic experts group)
• GIS Software-Specific Raster Data: GIS packages use raster
data that are imported from DEM, Satellite images, Scanned
images, Graphic files, and ASCII(American Standard Code
for Information Interchange) files are converted from vector
data
 Raster data Structure
• Raster data structure refers to the storage of raster data so that they can be
used and processed by the computer.
• Cell by Cell Encoding: A raster is stored as a matrix, and its cell values are
written into a file by row and column.
• Image description files: Band interleaved by line (BIL), band interleaved
by pixel (BIP), and band sequential (BSQ) are three common methods of
organizing image data for multiband images. BIL, BIP, and BSQ are not in
themselves image formats but are schemes for storing the actual pixel
values of an image in a file. These files support the display of single and
multiband images and handle black-and-white, grayscale, pseudo color,
true color, and multispectral image data.
• The BIL, BIP, and BSQ files are binary files, and they must have an
associated ASCII(American Standard Code for Information
Interchange) file header to be interpreted properly by ArcGIS. This
header file contains ancillary data about the image such as the number of
rows and columns in the image, if there is a color map, and latitude and
longitude.
 Raster data Structure
• Band interleaved by line:
• Data stores pixel information band by band for each
line, or row by row of the image. For example, given
a three-band image, all three bands of data are written
for row 1, band 1; row1 , band 2…row 2, band 1; row
2, band 2… and so on, until the total number of rows
in the image is reached. The following diagram
illustrates BIL data for a three-band dataset:
Band Interleaved By Pixel
 BSQ
• Band sequential (BSQ) is one of three primary
methods for encoding image data for multiband
raster images in the geospatial domain, such as
images obtained from satellites. BSQ is not in
itself an image format, but is a method for
encoding the actual pixel values of an image in a
file.
• It stores the values of an image band as one file. If
an image has seven bands , the data set has seven
consecutive files, one file for band.
Band Sequential Format
 Raster data Structure Cont..
• Run-length encoding is a data compression algorithm that is
supported by most bitmap file formats, such as TIFF, BMP, and PCX.
RLE is suited for compressing any type of data regardless of its
information content, but the content of the data will affect the
compression ratio achieved by RLE. Although most RLE algorithms
cannot achieve the high compression ratios of the more advanced
compression methods, RLE is both easy to implement and quick to
execute, making it a good alternative to either using a complex
compression algorithm or leaving your image data uncompressed.
• RLE works by reducing the physical size of a repeating string of
characters. This repeating string, called a run, is typically encoded
into two bytes. The first byte represents the number of characters in
the run and is called the run count. In practice, an encoded run may
contain 1 to 128 or 256 characters; the run count usually contains as
the number of characters minus one (a value in the range of 0 to 127
or 255). The second byte is the value of the character in the run,
which is in the range of 0 to 255, and is called the run value.
Quad Tree
 Data Conversion
• Data conversion is the conversion of one data format into
another. It is a technical process mostly done by software,
although rarely hardware or human intervention is used. The
sole purpose of the data conversion is to enable
interoperability and to maintain all of the data with embedding
as much as information as possible. Data conversion can be
simple or complex based on the environment and data formats
involved. Data is handled by the operating system and
different applications in different manners, so in order to use
the same data for other operating systems or applications, data
must be converted.
 Data Conversion
• The conversion of vector data to Raster
data is called Rasterization.
• The conversion of Raster data to vector
data is called Vectorization.
 Vector to Raster
Transformations
•Quite often, data in the vector and raster models need to
be used together
•One dataset is generally transformed to be represented in
the other model, introducing distortion.
 Integration of Raster and Vector Data

• This necessitates an efficient and effective data

integration technique using which raster data are to
be integrated with a vector-based GIS. ... A new approach is
developed for land-use change detection for use with vector data in a
GIS environment.
DATA INPUT:
• For a GIS to be useful it must be capable of receiving and producing
information in an effective manner. The data input and output functions are
the means by which a GIS communicates with the world outside. The
objective in defining GIS input and output requirements is to identify the
mix of equipment and methods needed to meet the required level of
performance and quality. No one device or approach is optimum for all
situations.
• DATA INPUT: The procedure of encoding data into a computer-readable
form and writing the data to the GIS database. Data entry is usually the
major bottleneck in implementing a GIS. The initial cost of building the
database is commonly 5 to 10 times to cost of the GIS hardware and
software.
• The creation of an accurate and well-documented database is critical to the
operation of the GIS. Accurate information can only be generated if the
data on which it is based were accurate to begin with. Data quality
information includes the date of collection, the positional accuracy,
completeness, and the method used to collect and encode the data.
 GIS Data Acquisition Methods,
Procedures, and Issues
• Data Acquisition
• Downloading Geographic Data
• Accessing Data Via Web Map Service
• Using Data from a Text File or Spreadsheet
w/Coordinates
• Joining Tabular Data
• Downloading Data from a GPS
• Creating and Editing Data
• Online Data Resources
 SOURCES OF DATA
• SOURCES OF DATA
• Two types of data are input into a GIS, spatial and
attribute.
• The creation of a clean digital database is the most
important and time consuming task upon which the
usefulness of the GIS depends. The establishment and
maintenance of a robust spatial database is the
cornerstone of a successful GIS implementation.
• The general consensus among the GIS community is that
60 to 80 % of the cost incurred during implementation of
GIS technology lies in data acquisition, data compilation
and database development.
O. Kilic EE543
Cont..
• A wide variety of data sources exist for both
spatial and attribute data. The most common
general sources for spatial data are:
• Hard copy maps;
• Aerial photographs;
• Remotely-sensed imagery;
• Point data samples from surveys; and
• Existing digital data files.
O. Kilic EE543
 Types of GIS Output
• Maps: Everyone recognizes this most common output from a
GIS.
• Cartograms: These special maps that distort geographic
features based on their output values rather than their size.
• Charts: GIS can produce pie charts, histograms (bar charts),
line charts, and even pictures in addition to maps.
• Directions: Another common output, directions show you how
to get from one place to another.
• Customer lists: Business GIS applications often produce
customer lists, sometimes with printed mailing labels.
• 3D diagrams and movies: These forms of GIS output help you
see the results of your work realistically and dramatically.
O. Kilic EE543
 Existing GIS Data
Common types of GIS data on the internet are data that many
organizations regularly use for GIS [Link] are called
frame work data, which include seven basic layers;
1)Geodetic control(accurate positional frame work for surveying
and mapping)
2)Orthoimagery(rectified imagery such as orthophotos)
3)Elevation
4)Transportation
5)Hydrography
6)Governmental units and
7)Cadastral information.
 Existing GIS Data

• Federal Geographic Data Committee;

is a 19-member interagency committee and it
leads the development of policies, metadata
standards, and training to support the national
spatial data infrastructure and coordination
efforts.
 Existing GIS Data
• Geospatial One-Stop;
The GOS is a geospatial data portal established
by the federai office of management and
budject in 2003 as an e-government initiative.
The main objective of GOS is to expand
collaborative partnerships at all levels of govt
to help leverage investments in geospatial data
and to reduce the duplication of data
 Existing GIS Data
• [Link] Survey;
It is the major provider of GIS data in US. Its
website offers pathways to USGS national
mapping and remotely sensed data and to
thematic data clearinghouses on biological,
geological, and water resources data . Public
data available from the USGS include both
vector and raster data.
Digital line graphs
National Land Cover Data
 Existing GIS Data
• [Link] Bureau
It offers the TIGER/ Line files, which are extracts of
geographic/cartographic information from its
TIGER(Topologically Integrated Geographic
Encoding and Geferencing) data base.
The TIGER/Line files contain legal and statistical area
boundaries such as counties, census tracts, and block
groups, which can be linked to the census data , as
well as roads, rail-roads, streams, water bodies,
power lines, and pipe lines.
 Existing GIS Data
• Natural Resources Conservation Service;
[Link] of agriculture distributes soils data
nationwide through its website,
There are two soil databases; (compiled at 1:250,000
scale)
1)STATSGO (State Soil geographic) data base is
suitable for broad planning and management.
2)SSURGO(Soil Survey Geographic) database is
designed for uses at the farm, township, and county
levels.
 Existing GIS Data
• Statewide Public Data:
The geospatial One-Stop website provides a link
to every state in the U.S. for statewide GIS
data
• Regional Public Data:
The greater yellowstone Area Data clearing
house is a FGDC data node sponsored by a
group of federal agencies, state agencies,
universities, and non-profit organizations.
 Existing GIS Data
• Metropolitan Public Data:
Data the can be downloaded SANDAG’s website
include administrative boundaries, base map features,
District boundaries, land cover activities centers,
transportation and sensitive lands/natural resources.
• County Level Public data:
Many countries in the US offer GIS data for sale.
• GIS data from private companies:
They are engaged in software development, technical
service, consulting, and data production. some also
provided free sample data or can direct GIS users to
suitable Sources.
 METADATA

• Data about Data.

• Metadata is information about data. Similar to
a library catalog record, metadata records
document the who, what, when, where, how,
and why of a data resource.
Geospatial metadata describes maps,
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) files,
imagery, and other location-based data
resources.
 METADATA
• Meta data are important to anyone who plans to use
public data for a GIS project.
• First, metadata let us know if the data meet our
specific needs for area coverage, data quality and data
currency.
• Second, metadata show us how to transfer, process,
and interpret geospatial data.
• Third, metadata include the contact for additional
information.
 Conversion of Existing Data

• Direct Translation: uses a translator in a GIS

package to directly convert geospatial data
from one format to another, many users still
prefer direct translation because it is easier to
use than other methods.
• Arctoolbox in ArcGIScan translate ArcInfo’s
interchange file. Microstation’s DGN files,
Auto-CAD’s DXF and DWG files and
MapInfo files into shape files or geodatabases.
 Conversion of Existing Data
• Neutral Format:
It is a public or de facto format for data exchange( Ex-
ArcGIS converts a MapInfo file to a shapefile)
The topological vector profile covers DLG, TIGER and
topology based vector data.
The raster profile and extensions accommodate
DOQ,DEM, and other raster data.
The transportation network profile covers vector data
with network topology.
The point profile supports geodetic control point data.
 DATA INPUT TECHNIQUES
• The choice of data input method is governed largely by
the application, the available budget, and the type and
the complexity of data being input.
• Keyboard Entry
• Manual digitizing;
• Automatic scanning;
• Entry of coordinates using coordinate geometry; and
the
• Conversion of existing digital data.
Cont..
• Manual digitizing has many advantages. These include:
• Low capital cost, e.g. digitizing tables are cheap;
• Low cost of labour;
• Flexibility and adaptability to different data types and sources;
• Easily taught in a short amount of time - an easily mastered
skill
• Generally the quality of data is high;
• Digitizing devices are very reliable and most often offer a
greater precision that the data warrants; and
• Ability to easily register and update existing data.

O. Kilic EE543
DATA INPUT TECHNIQUES

O. Kilic EE543
 Creating New Data
• Address geocoding, also called address matching, can
create point features from street addresses.
• Remotely Sensed data
• Field Data(Survey data and GPS data)
• Text files with x-y coordinates
• Digitizing using digitizing Table
• Scanning
• On-screen Digitizing
• Importance of Source Maps
Survey and GPS data
 Digitizing using digitizing Table
• A program provided with the computer uses the pen
information to turn on a specific dot on the screen.
A digitizing table is used by placing a drawing on
the table and tracing it out with the pen, or just moving the
pen on the table as though it were a drawing surface
 Scanning
• For many years, paper maps were the heart of
cartography and spatial analysis. While computers
have become the majority for their ease of use and
ability to store large amounts of related data at one
time, past paper maps still contain a wealth of
information that has yet to be input into the computer.
This is where digitizing a scanned image comes into
play. Using a flat bed or large rolling scanner, paper
maps and other hard copy images, can be scanned
into the GIS and then georeferenced for use with
digitization.
Cont..
• The process of conversion of paper maps into
digital format usable by computer is known
as Scanning. It is used to convert an analog
map into a scanned file, which is again
converted to vector format through tracing.
Scanners
 On Screen Digitization
• Manual digitization is not completely obsolete, as it is
still handy when paper maps are too large or too
damaged to scan into the GIS. Large maps can be
challenging to piece back together within the GIS
without introducing some error and damaged maps can
lead to distortion of the map objects when scanned,
such as if the map is torn and taped back together or if
the map is very wrinkled. As computers gained more
speed and power and fell in cost, they became easier to
use and more common within companies and
agencies.
Cont..
• As a result, the need to use a digitizing table
and trained digitizer began to diminish
as heads-up or on-screen digitizing became
the more common way create new digital
layers, with it's speed, ease of use, and short
training time.
On Screen
Digitization
Advantages and Disadvantages of
RASTER and VECTOR:
 PROBLEMS WITH DIGITIZING MAPS

• Arise since most maps were not drafted for the purpose of
digitizing
– Paper maps are unstable: each time the map is removed form
the digitizing table, the reference points must be re-entered
when the map is affixed to the table again
– If the map has stretched or shrunk in the interim, the newly
digitized points will be slightly off in their location when
compared to previously digitized points
– Errors occur on these maps, and these errors are entered into
the GIS database as well
– The level of error in the GIS database is directly related to the
error level of the source maps
 PROBLEMS WITH DIGITIZING MAPS
• Maps are meant to display information, and do not
always accurately record locational information
– For example, when a railroad, stream and road all go
through a narrow mountain pass, the pass may actually
be depicted wider than its actual size to allow for the
three symbols to be drafted in the pass
• Edgematching: discrepancies across map sheet
boundaries can cause discrepancies in the total GIS
database
– For example, roads or streams that do not meet exactly
when two map sheets are placed next to each other
 PROBLEMS WITH DIGITIZING MAPS

• User fatigue and boredom

• User error causes overshoots, undershoots
(gaps) and spikes at intersection of lines

O. Kilic EE543
 EDITING ERRORS FROM DIGITIZING

• Some errors can be corrected automatically

– Small gaps at line junctions
– Overshoots and sudden spikes in lines
• Error rates depend on the complexity of the
map, are high for small scale, complex maps

O. Kilic EE543
 Vector editing / Cleaning
• Pseudo-node
• Undershoot
• Overshoot
• Clustered node
• Sliver polygon
• Duplicate objects
• Breaking crossing objects
• Co-ordinate thinning
• Label errors
Vector editing / Cleaning
 Raster Example: Sea Surface Temperature

[Link]