Rocks,
Minerals
and their
Exploitation
Chapter 01
Lithosphere
• The earth and the rocks that make the earth up is referred to as the
Lithosphere.
• Three types of Rocks
(a) Igneous Rocks
(b) Sedimentary Rocks
(c) Metamorphic Rocks
(a) Igneous Rocks
• They are formed by lava through volcanic activity.
• Magma is released from the mantle
• Magma rises towards the surface
• The magma cools down to form sedimentary rocks
• E.g. Granite, Basalt
(a) Igneous Rocks
• There are two types.
• 1. Extrusive igneous rock: if the rock cools quickly,
small crystals are formed e.g. basalt.
• 2. Intrusive igneous rock: if the rock cools slowly,
large crystals are formed e.g. granite
(b) Sedimentary Rocks
• These are made up of sediments
• Sediments are small particles which are broken from different rocks.
• After breaking, they reach the seabed
• Sedimentary rocks are formed by the weathering of existing rocks at the Earth’s surface.
• Fossils may be present.
• Sediments (small particles of rocks) accumulate into layers and get pressurized due to the
newer deposits above them.
• The sediments are transported by water and wind (erosion).
• Particles like clays, silts, sands, gravels and small boulders are found in sediments.
• Examples: limestone, sandstone and shale
(b) Sedimentary Rocks
(c) Metamorphic Rocks
• These rocks are formed in the Earth’s crust which also change their
shapes
• The change in shape is due to heat and pressure
• Heat is provided by the magma flow and pressure is provided at the
plate boundaries
• Metamorphic rocks are formed from existing rock when heat and/or pressure causes
changes in the rock crystals without melting it.
• The changes can be physical, chemical or both.
• Examples: marble and slate
(c) Metamorphic Rocks
Rock Cycle - A representation of the changes between
the three rock types and the processes causing them.
Extraction of rocks and minerals
from the Earth
• Two types of Mining Methods;
(1) Surface Mining
(a) Open Pit/Open-Cast/Open-cut Mining
(b) Strip Mining
(2) Sub-Surface Mining
(a) Deep Mining
(b) Shaft Mining
(1) Surface Mining – (a) Open Cast
Mining
• Open-pit mining is used when a valuable deposit is located near the
surface.
• The vegetation is removed and the top soil is cleared
• The rocks are broke and cut using explosives
• The diggers are used to remove the loose rock • The rocks are carried
in trucks/railway Wagons
• Building materials such as sand, gravel and stone are removed from
open pits called quarries.
(1) Surface Mining – (a) Open Cast
Mining
(1) Surface Mining – (b) Strip
Mining
• Strip mining is used to mine a seam of mineral.
• The overburden (overlying rock and soil) is
removed as a thin strip.
• It is mainly used to mine coal.
Why open-pit mines eventually
stop being worked?
• Valuable deposit as possible has been removed.
• the amount of overburden that needs to be removed has increased to
an extent that the mine is no longer profitable.
(b) Sub-Surface Mining
• Includes deep and shaft mining.
• A vertical shaft is sunk down to the rock layer containing minerals.
• A horizontal tunnel is made, following the mineral layer.
• The minerals are extracted by digging by machines and miners).
• The loose rock is brought from the mine and piled up on waste heaps
on the surface.
• The minerals are brought to the surface and transported in trucks or
trains.
(b) Sub-Surface Mining
Risks faced in Deep/Shaft Mining
• supply of fresh air and water drainage has to be provided.
• There are also the dangers of collapsing tunnels.
• the risks of poisonous gas, explosion and underground fire.
Methods of Exploring for
minerals:
(1) Prospecting:
A process of searching for minerals by examining
the surface of the rocks.
Methods of Exploring for minerals:
(2) Remote sensing: a process in which information is gathered about the Earth’s surface
from above.
▪ Photographs of the area are taken from air.
▪ The images are carefully analyzed for mineral presence.
▪ Aerial photography can cover more ground than a person on the surface.
(3) Radiation detection:
▪ Mineral deposits are weathered at the Earth’s surface, forming mineral oxides.
▪ They can be detected by their unique radiation pattern (recorded by a satellite and
downloaded to a computer for analysis).
Methods of Exploring for minerals:
(4) Satellite signals:
▪ Some satellites send signals to the Earth’s surface and collect the reflected signals,
indicating the presence of minerals.
▪ The system works in all weather conditions.
(5) Geology - Computers are used to process the data from a region of interest to check for
mineral presence.
▪ Geologists confirm the presence of the mineral by visiting the location (recorded by the
satellite’s positioning system).
▪ Geologists can further check the availability of the mineral in nearby areas.
▪ Using satellites saves time and costs less.
Methods of Exploring for minerals:
(6) Geochemical analysis:
analyzing the chemical properties of rocks (by taking samples).
▪ The samples can be taken from stream sediments, soil or rocks (using shallow drilling).
▪ The location of the sample points can be accurately found using the Global Positioning
System (GPS).
Methods of Exploring for minerals:
(7) Geophysics: method to identify mineral ores present in rocks using their
physical properties.
▪ A series of vibrations (seismic waves) are sent through the Earth’s surface.
▪ Several sensors are placed at different distances from the source of vibrations
on the surface.
▪ The vibrations create shock waves that travel down into the rock layers.
▪ They are reflected back to the sensors on the surface.
▪ The shock waves record different patterns depending on the mineral present in
the rock layers.
Factors that affect the decision to extract
Rocks and Minerals:
1. The costs of exploration and extraction:
• Probable cost of extracting one tonne is calculated.
• There are fewer technical difficulties of mining on a large scale using open-pit mining as
there’d be low extraction costs per tonne.
• Shaft mining is costlier to set up and maintain as the cost per tonne will be higher. So,
only deposits of higher value can be mined in this way.
2. Geology:
• High-grade ores yield more of the required chemical elements than low-grade ores.
• Small deposits of high-grade ore are worth mining.
• Small deposits of low-grade ore that cannot be mined at a profit are left as reserves.
Factors that affect the decision to extract
Rocks and Minerals:
3. Accessibility:
• Transporting the ore from the mine to processing plants can be difficult and expensive.
• The cost of building road or rail links to the processing plant or to the nearest port for
export has to be considered.
• Carrying out some processing at the mine reduces transport costs.
• The mining company must be given a license before extracting a deposit.
• A long-term agreement between the government and mining company must be reached
to avoid rapid rises in the tax, which makes the mining unprofitable.
4. Climate
Factors that affect the decision to extract
Rocks and Minerals:
5. Environmental impact assessment:
• For a license application to be approved, the company must have a plan to keep the loss of
habitat minimal, followed by the restoration of land proceeding the completion of mining.
• The choice of site for mine waste should also be considered.
6. Supply and demand: the relation between how much of a commodity is available and how
much is needed or wanted by the consumers.
• Increase in world demand for any mineral ore will elevate the prices.
• The profit from a working mine depends on changes in supply and demand.
• If the demand is too high, mines that were not profitable before become worth mining.
• If the demand falls, working mines may get into a loss due to the transport and extraction
expenses.
Some uses of different rocks
• Chalk: used in manufacturing of cement
• Gravel: Used for making concrete
• Clay: used in making sand
• Granite: for construction
• Sand: making glass
Impact of Rock and Mineral
Extraction
(1) Environmental impacts:
o Ecological impacts:
• Loss of habitat as the vegetation is cleared ؞plants do not have a place to grow, so the
animals
depending on them for food and shelter are affected.
• After deep mining has been working for several years, more habitats will be destroyed
due to the increased overburden aboveground.
o Pollution:
• Noise pollution: due to machinery and explosives؞disturbs the behaviour of animal species
and causes hearing problems for people.
Impact of Rock and Mineral
Extraction
• Water pollution: water supplies may also be polluted, making it unsafe for people to drink.
• The water may become acidic and dissolve toxic metal ions-this combination kills many
aquatic organisms.
• Bioaccumulation: organisms absorb the ions and retain them in their body, reaching
concentration higher than that in water.
• Biomagnification: the concentrations increase higher up in the food chain and cause the
death of top consumers.
• Land pollution: toxic nature of the waste doesn’t allow plant growth even years after the
mining is stopped.
Impact of Rock and Mineral
Extraction
• Air pollution: dust particles settle on the vegetation, not allowing
sunlight to reach the leaves and thus, reducing the rate of
photosynthesis.
• Breathing in dust that remains in the lungs can cause serious lung
diseases.
• Visual pollution: landscape is damaged.
o Waste management:
Impact of Rock and Mineral Extraction
• • Economic impacts:
• o Provides employment for people and taxes for the government.
• ▪ Jobs are created directly to extract the mineral;
• ▪ Further jobs are created to supply transport and mining equipment;
• ▪ More jobs are created when the mineral is refined to make products;
• ▪ If all these activities occur in the same country, it will generate the most income;
• ▪ Earn foreign exchange.
• o The income earned can be used for buying goods and services and investing in infrastructure
projects.
• ▪ Improvements to transport;
• ▪ Improvements to services, like healthcare and education;
• ▪ These services can be helpful for miners and their families too;
• ▪ Investing in infrastructure projects can help the country in building more well-designed communities.
Managing the Impact of Rock and
Mineral Extraction
What is Reclamation?
A process of returning mined land back to its original condition.
Managing the Impact of Rock and Mineral
Extraction
1. Safe disposal of mining waste:
• Mine waste must be stored to prevent collapse.
• Site of the mine must prevent the chances of water pollution.
• The waste must be monitored to detect any movement or further pollution.
2. Land restoration:
o Soil improvement: After (sanitary) landfilling, mine waste can be covered by a layer of
soil, that can be enriched with fertilizers.
o Tree planting: After improving the soil fertility, plants and trees can be grown in that area,
helping an ecosystem to be reborn.
Managing the Impact of Rock and Mineral
Extraction
• 3. Bioremediation: This is a process of removing pollutants from waste using living
organisms.
• In situ treatment: treatment of contaminated waste where it’s left.
• Ex situ treatment: removal of contaminated waste from a site to a treatment plant.
• Often happens slowly (can be sped up by providing oxygen and nitrogen).
• Microorganisms, like bacteria, can absorb pollutants and metabolize them into less
harmful substances.
• Some plants have the ability to bioaccumulate toxic metals.
• After these plants grows for a while, the parts of the plants aboveground are removed so
the waste in the ground becomes less toxic.
Managing the Impact of Rock and Mineral
Extraction
4. Making lakes and natural reserves:
• Several tree and herb species are introduced.
• As their populations grow, they create habitats for many species.
• These nature reserves become valuable green spaces for human recreation and help in
maintaining biodiversity.
• If the rock lining the hole (created by the extraction) is non-toxic and impervious to water, it
can be filled with water to form a reservoir or lake.
• It is used for irrigating farmland or processed to provide clean, safe drinking water for
humans.
5. Using as landfill sites:
• Landfilling: the waste is tipped into a hole; from time to time it is levelled off and
compacted.
• Sanitary landfilling: As in landfilling, the waste is used to fill the hole, but alternating layers
of waste and sand are used.
Sustainable Use of Rocks and
Minerals
• Sustainable resource: a resource that can be continuously replenished
e.g. agriculture, forestry, etc.
• Sustainable development: development that meets the needs of the
present, without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.
Strategies for Sustainable Use of
Rocks and Minerals
[Link] the effi ciency of the extraction of rocks and minerals:
▪ Mine wastes must be processed for the second time.
▪ This allows the valuable minerals to be recovered and reduces the risk of
pollution due to mine waste.
▪ Chemical treatment of the waste and biological treatment (using
microorganisms) extracts much of the valuable mineral still within it.
▪ Improvements in the performance of the machines used in mining and
processing.
▪ Greater use of data analysis by computers (to predict geological conditions).
Strategies for Sustainable Use of
Rocks and Minerals
2. Increasing the efficiency of the use of rocks and minerals:
• Engineering solutions e.g. design steel beams with same strength but using less steel.
3. The need to recycle rocks and minerals:
• Recycling uses less energy than processing the ores.
• Recycling also produces less waste and thus, reduces the risk of pollution.
4. Legislation:
• The governments pass laws that require manufacturers to become responsible for recycling
and reuse.