WRE

MODULE -2
METHODS FOR FINDING MAX DISCHARGE

• Rational method
• Empirical methods
• Flood frequency methods
• Hydrograph analysis
Rainfall excess or effective rainfall

•The distribution of gross rainfall can be given by the continuity equation as

Gross rainfall = depression storage+ evaporation+ infiltration + surface runoff

•In case, where depression storage is small and evaporation can be neglected, we
can compute rainfall excess which equals to direct runoff, DRO, by

Rainfall excess (Pn) = DRO = gross rainfall – (infiltration + depression

storage)
Rainfall excess (contd..)

•The simpler method to determine

rainfall excess include
•[Link] infiltration method
•2.Ø index method
•Note:- In this, the initial loss is included
for depression storage

Infiltration loss curve

Rainfall excess (contd..)
Horton infiltration method
Horton method estimates infiltration with an exponential-type
equation that slowly declines in time as rainfall continues and is
given by
f= fc + (fo – fc) e-kt ( when rainfall intensity i>f)
where
f = infiltration capacity (in./hr)
fo = initial infiltration capacity (in./hr)
fc = final infiltration capacity (in./hr)
k = empirical constant (hr-1)

Ø index method
It is the simplest method and is calculated by finding the loss
difference between gross precipitation and observed surface runoff
measured as a hydrograph .
Hydrograph analysis
•A hydrograph is a continuous plot of instantaneous discharge v/s
time.
•It results from a combination of physiographic and meteorological
conditions in a watershed and represents the integrated effects of
climate, hydrologic losses, surface runoff, interflow, and ground
water flow.
•Detailed analysis of hydrographs is usually important in flood
damage mitigation, flood forecasting, or establishing design flows for
structures that convey floodwaters.
•Factors that influence the hydrograph shape and volume

• Meteorological factors
• Physiographic or watershed factors and
• Human factors
Hydrograph analysis (contd..)
•Meteorological factors include
• Rainfall intensity and pattern
• Areal distribution or rainfall over the basin and
• Size and duration of the storm event
•Physiographic or watershed factors include
• Size and shape of the drainage area
• Slope of the land surface and main channel
• Channel morphology and drainage type
• Soil types and distribution
• Storage detention in the watershed
•Human factors include the effects of land use and land
cover
Hydrograph analysis (contd..)

•During the rainfall, hydrologic losses such as infiltration,

depression storage and detention storage must be satisfied
prior to the onset of surface runoff

•As the depth of surface detention increases, overland flow may

occur in portion in a basin

•Water eventually moves into small rivulets, small channels and

finally the main stream of a watershed

•Some of the water that infiltrates the soil may move laterally
through upper soil zones (subsurface stream flow) until it
enters a stream channel
Hydrograph analysis
(contd..)

Hydrograph relations
The typical hydrograph
is characterized by a
•[Link] limb
•[Link]
•[Link] curve
•The inflection point on
the falling limb is often
assumed to be the point
where direct runoff ends
[Link] Limb : It is the ascending curved portion of the hydrograph.
• The rising limb rises slowly in the early stage of the flood but more
rapidly toward the end portion.
• The shape of rising limb depends on duration and intensity
distribution of rainfall.
• This is because in early stages the losses is more and water
reaches to the stream faster
2. Peak Segment (or Crest Segment) : Peak segment is shown by
inverted U in the hydrograph.
• This is the part which is taken as matter of interest by hydrologists.
• Peak of hydrograph occurs when all parts of basins contribute at
the outlet simultaneously at the maximum rate.
• Depending upon the rainfall-basin characterstics, the peak may be
3. Falling Limb (or Recession Limb) : Recession Limb
represents the withdrawal of water from the storage built up
during the early phase of hydrograph.
• It extends from the point of inflection at the end of the crest
to the beginning of the natural groundwater flow.
• The shape of recession limb depends upon
basin characteristics only and independent of the storm.
Hydrograph analysis (contd..)

Recession and Base flow separation

In this the hydrograph is divided into two
parts
•[Link] runoff (DRO) and
•[Link] flow (BF)
•DRO include some interflow whereas BF
is considered to be mostly from
contributing ground water
•Recession curve method is used to
separate DRO from BF

Base flow separation

 COMPUTATION OF DIRECT RUNOFF
HYDROGRAPH FROM FLOOD
HYDROGRAPH
Steps
• Find the ordinates of flood/storm hydrograph representing total discharge Q at a given time
interval t hours
• separate the groundwater flow and find the coordinates of the base flow at the same time
interval
• find the ordinates of direct runoff = total discharge ordinates – ordinates of base flow
• the direct runoff depth of water in cm found by,

• DIRECT RUNOFF =

Where, t = time interval between successive ordinates,

A = area of basin in sq km
Σ O = sum of discharge ordinates in cumecs
 • Find the direct runoff for the following data from a stream
gauging station for a storm if area of basin is 30 sq km
Time (hours) Ordinate of Base Flow Ordinates of
flood Cumecs Direct runoff
hydrograph (O)
(given) Q cumecs (given)
(given)
0 14 14 0 A = 30 sq km
3 25 12 13
Σ O = 166
6 51 11 cumecs 40
9 65 10 55
12 54 11 43
15 28 13 15
18 14 14 0

Hence, direct runoff = 0.36 *166 *3/30

= 5.98 cm
 DIFFERENT HYDROGRAPHS
1. FLOOD HYDROGRAPH/STORM HYDROGRAPH
• A hydrograph that shows how a river is affected by a single storm.
2. DIRECT RUNOFF HYDROGRAPH
• Obtained from storm/flood hydrograph by deducting the baseflow from the ordinates
using different methods of baseflow separation
3. UNIT HYDROGRAPH
• The Unit Hydrograph (abbreviated as UH) of a drainage basin is defined as a
hydrograph of direct runoff resulting from one unit of effective rainfall which is uniformly
distributed over the basin at a uniform rate during the specified period of time known
as unit time or unit duration.
• Can be obtained from a direct runoff hydrograph by dividing the ordinates with the
value of total direct runoff generated for the storm under consideration
 UNIT HYDROGRAPH
• The Unit Hydrograph of a drainage basin is defined as a
hydrograph of direct runoff resulting from one unit of
effective rainfall which is uniformly distributed over the basin
at a uniform rate during the specified period of time known
as unit time or unit duration.
 UNIT HYDROGRAPH
• The unit quantity of effective rainfall is generally taken as 1mm or
1cm and the outflow hydrograph is expressed by the discharge
ordinates.
• The unit duration may be 1 hour, 2 hour, 3 hours or so depending
upon the size of the catchment and storm characteristics.
• However, the unit duration cannot be more than the time of
concentration, which is the time that is taken by the water from the
furthest point of the catchment to reach the outlet.
Assumptions Of Unit Hydrograph Theory:

• The derivation of unit hydrograph is based on the following

assumptions:
1. The effective rainfall is uniformly distributed throughout the
watershed area.
• If there are ‘N’ rain gauges spread uniformly over the basin, then all
the gauges should record almost same amount of rainfall during the
specified time.
2. The base or time duration of hydrograph of the direct runoff due to an
effective rainfall of unit duration, is constant.
3. The effective rainfall is uniformly distributed within its duration.
 Assumptions Of Unit Hydrograph Theory:

4. The ordinates of direct runoff hydrograph of common base time are directly
proportional to the amount of effective rainfall.
• Sometimes, this assumption is also called principle of linearity.
• Hence, if a 6-h unit hydrograph due to 1 cm rainfall is given, then a 6-h
hydrograph due to 2 cm rainfall would just mean doubling the unit
hydrograph ordinates. Hence, the base of the resulting hydrograph (from the
start or rise up to the time when discharge becomes zero) also remains the
same.
5. The direct runoff hydrograph for a given effective rainfall for a catchment is
always the same irrespective of when it occurs- Time Invariance
6. For a given watershed the hydrograph of direct runoff of a given rainfall
duration, reflects all physical characteristics of the watershed.
UNIT HYDROGRAPH LIMITATIONS
• In theory, the principle of unit hydrograph is applicable to
a basin of any size.
• However, in practice, to meet the basic assumption in the
derivation of the unit hydrograph as closely as possible, it
is essential to use storms which are uniformly distributed
over the basin and producing rainfall excess at uniform
rate.
• Such storms rarely occur over large areas.
• The size of the catchment is, therefore, limited although
detention, valley storage, and infiltration all tend to
minimize the effect of rainfall variability.
UNIT HYDROGRAPH LIMITATIONS

• The limit is generally considered to be about 5000 sq. km. beyond

which the reliability of the unit hydrograph method diminishes.
• When the basin area exceeds this limit, it has to be divided into sub-
basins and the unit hydrograph is developed for each sub-basin.
• The flood discharge at the basin outlet is then estimated by
combining the subbasin floods, using flood routing procedures.
• Flood Routing: is used to denote the computation principles for
estimating the values of flood discharge with time and in space, that
is, along the length of a river.
 CONSTRUCTION OF A UNIT HYDROGRAPH
• from the past records, select a unit period of intense rainfall duration
corresponding to an isolated storm uniformly distributed over an area.
• From the post records of the river discharge for that storm, plot the storm
hydrograph for some days before and after the period of rainfall of that unit
duration.
• Separate the ground water flow (base flow) from the direct run-off.
• calculate the run-off in cm =

• Calculate the ordinates of unit hydrograph by the relation,

ordinate of unit hydrograph = ordinate of direct sun-off/Direct runoff in cm
 • Find the direct runoff for the following data from a stream gauging station for a 3 hour
storm if area of basin is 30 sq km and derive the ordinates of of a 3 hour unit hydrograph.

Time Ordinate Base Ordinate Unit

(hours) of flood Flow s of hydrograp
hydrogra Cumecs Direct h
ph runoff ordinates A = 30 sq km
(given) Q cumecs (given) (O) = O/5.98
(given) cumecs Σ O = 166 cumecs m
0 14 14 0 0 Hence, direct runoff = 0.36 *166
*3/30
3 25 12 13 2.17
= 5.98 cm
6 51 11 40 6.69 Check
9 65 10 55 9.19 Direct runoff depth of unit
hydrograph = 0.36* 27.74
12 54 11 43 7.19
*3/30
15 28 13 15 2.5 = 0.99 ~ = 1
18 14 14 0 0

Sum of 166 27.74 Hence check is satisfied as a

ordinates unit hydrograph should have
1 cm runoff
 CONSTRUCTION OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH
FOR OTHER DURATIONS -1
• The unit Hydrograph for different duration may be constructed by the principle of super position.
• If we want to develop a unit hydrograph of duration mD from a unit
hydrograph of unit duration D, where m is an integer method of superposition
can be applied.
• ie, m = 2,3,4 etc
• Suppose It is required to construct a 9 hr. unit hydrograph from 3 bours unit hydrograph
• Then three bour unit hydrograph is plotted thrice with a time lag of 3 hours.
• The Ordinates of these three overlapping unit hydrograph are summed up to obtain a summation
hydrograph of 9 hours.
• The ordinate of a hour summation hydrograph is divided by 3 to obtain the ordinates of a 9 hour unit
hydrograph.
 The ordinates of a 2 hour unit hydrograph is given in table.
Construct a 4 hour unit hydrograph from it
2 hr UH 4 hour
lagged summa 2 hr UH to 4 hr UH
time 2 hr UH by 2 tion HG 4 hour
(hrs) - ord - hours = ii +iii UH v = 2 hr UH ord - (ii) 2 hr UH lagged by 2 hours (iii)
(i) (ii) (iii) = iv (iv)/2 4 hour summation HG = ii +iii = iv 4 hour UH v = (iv)/2

0 0 0 0 80

2 9 0 9 4.5 70
4 20 9 29 14.5
60
6 30 20 50 25
8 45 30 75 37.5 50
10 25 45 70 35
40
12 15 25 40 20
14 9 15 24 12 30

16 8 9 17 8.5
20
18 7 8 15 7.5
20 4 7 11 5.5 10

22 0.5 4 4.5 2.25 0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
24 0 0.5 0.5 0.25
26 0 0 0
 • The ordinates of a 3 hour unit hydrograph is given in table. Construct a 9 hour unit hydrograph from it

time 3 hr UH 3 hr UH
(hrs) - 3 hr UH lagged by 3 lagged by 6 9 hour flood HG = ii 9 hour UH = (vi)
(i) ord - (ii) hours (iii) hours (iv) +iii + iv = (v) = (v)/3
0 0 0 0
3 9 0 9 3
6 20 9 0 29 9.67
9 25 20 9 54 18
12 18 25 20 63 21
15 10 18 25 53 17.67
18 8 10 18 36 12
21 4 8 10 22 7.33
24 2 4 8 14 4.67
27 1 2 4 7 2.33
30 0 1 2 3 1
33 0 1 1 0.33
36 0 0 0
70
3hr Unit Hydrograph to 9 hr UH

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

3 hr UH ord - (ii) 3 hr UH lagged by 3 hours (iii)

3 hr UH lagged by 6 hours (iv) 9 hour summation HG = ii +iii + iv = v
9 hour UH
• The ordinates of a 3 hour flood hydrograph hydrograph is given in table. Construct a 9 hour unit hydrograph from it

3 hr 3 hr
UH UH 9 hour
3 hr UH lagge lagge summatio
3 hour flood ord - (v) d by 3 d by 6 n HG =
hydrograph baseflow 3 hr DR ord -- = hours hours viii = v + 9 hour UH
time (hrs) - (i) ordinates- ii ordinates (iii) (iv) = ii -iii iv/3.492 (vi) (vii) vi + vii Xi = viii/3
0 10.00 10 0 0.00 0.00 0.00
3 20.00 11 9 2.58 0.00 2.58 0.86
6 32.00 12 20 5.73 2.58 0.00 8.30 2.77
9 38.00 13 25 7.16 5.73 2.58 15.46 5.15
12 33.00 15 18 5.15 7.16 5.73 18.04 6.01
15 22.00 12 10 2.86 5.15 7.16 15.18 5.06
18 19.00 11 8 2.29 2.86 5.15 10.31 3.44
21 14.00 10 4 1.15 2.29 2.86 6.30 2.10
24 15.00 13 2 0.57 1.15 2.29 4.01 1.34
27 13.00 12 1 0.29 0.57 1.15 2.00 0.67
30 10.00 10 0 0.00 0.29 0.57 0.86 0.29
33 0.00 0.29 0.29 0.10
36 0.00 0.00 0.00
40.00 3 hr FH to 9hr UH
3 hour flood hydrograph ordinates- ii
35.00 baseflow ordinates (iii)
3 hr DR ord -- (iv) = ii -iii
3 hr UH ord - (iv) = iii/3.492
30.00
3 hr UH lagged by 3 hours (v)
3 hr UH lagged by 6 hours (vi)
25.00
9 hour summation HG = vii = iv + v + vi
9 hour UH
20.00

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
 • The ordinates of a 3 hour hydrograph hydrograph is given in table. Construct a 3 hour flood hydrograph
for a 3 hour storm for total rainfall of 15cm. Assume an initial loss of 0.5 cm and Φ- index of 1 cm/hr.
from it

ordinates of
DRH base flood
Time UH Ordinates flow hydrograph Effective Rainfall = Total
hours ordinates cumecs – Cumecs cumecs- Rainfall
-i cumecs -ii iii = ii* 11.5 - iv v =iv+ iii - Losses
0 0 0 4 4
6 3 34.5 4 38.5
Losses = Initial Losses +
12 5 57.5 4 61.5
18 9 103.5 4 107.5 Infiltration
24 11 126.5 4 130.5
= 0.5 cm + 1
30 7 80.5 4 84.5
36 5 57.5 4 61.5 cm/hr x 3 hr
42 4 46 4 50 = 3.5cm
48 2 23 4 27 Effective rainfall = 15 –
54 1 11.5 4 15.5
60 0 0 4 4
3.5

=11.5 cm
 UH to FH
140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

UH ordinates DRH ordinaates

base flow ordinates of flood hydrograph
S- HYDROGRAPH OR SUMMATION
HYDROGRAPH
• a hydrograph of direct surface discharge that would result from a
successive storms each of which produces an effective rainfall of
1 cm in unit its respective unit duration.
• Derived by summing up the ordinates of a series of unit
hydrographs of same unit duration spaced at intervals of the unit
duration
• Summation curve or summation hydrograph
• Continuous rising curve in the shape of S until a constant
discharge is reached
• The ordinates of a 2 hour unit hydrograph is given in table. Find out the equilibrium discharge
and Construct a summation hydrograph from it. Area of the catchment = 124.2 km sq
Equilibrium discharge = 2.778 x 124.2/2
2 hr UH
lagged = 172.5 cumecs summati
by 2 on
2 hr UH hours lag lag lag lag lag hydrogra
time (hrs) -(i) ord - (ii) (iii) lag 4 lag 6 8 lag 10 lag 12 14 lag 16 18 lag 20 lag 22 lag 24 26 lag 28 lag 30 32 aph
0 0 0
2 9 0 9
4 20 9 0 29
6 30 20 9 0 59
8 45 30 20 9 0 104
10 25 45 30 20 9 0 129
12 15 25 45 30 20 9 0 144
14 9 15 25 45 30 20 9 0 153
16 8 9 15 25 45 30 20 9 0 161
18 7 8 9 15 25 45 30 20 9 0 168
20 4 7 8 9 15 25 45 30 20 9 0 172
22 0.5 4 7 8 9 15 25 45 30 20 9 0 172.5
24 0 0.5 4 7 8 9 15 25 45 30 20 9 0 172.5
26 0 0.5 4 7 8 9 15 25 45 30 20 9 0 172.5
28 0 0.5 4 7 8 9 15 25 45 30 20 9 0 172.5
30 0 0.5 4 7 8 9 15 25 45 30 20 9 0 172.5
32 0 0.5 4 7 8 9 15 25 45 30 20 9 0 172.5
 2 hr UH to SH
200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

2 hr UH ord - (ii) 2 hr UH lagged by 2 hours (iii) lag 4

lag 6 lag 8 lag 10
lag 12 lag 14 lag 16
lag 18 lag 20 lg 22
lag 24 lag 26 summation hydrograaph
CONSTRUCTION OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH
FOR OTHER DURATIONS -2

• If we want to developa unit hydrograph of duration mD

from a unit hydrograph of unit duration D, where m is not an
integer method of superposition cannot be applied.
• ie, m cannot be 1, 2, 3 etc.
• Here we use S-curve method
• S-curve is a curve of continuous rainfall at a constant rate for
an infinite period.
CONSTRUCTION OF A LARGER PERIOD
HYDROGRAPH FROM A GIVEN
HYDROGRAPH -2.A
• When m is not an integer
pute the S curve ordinates and derive the ordinates of a 5 hr UH from the data g

4 hr UH S- curve S curve required

ord in 4hr UH ord in lagged by difference ordinates of 5
time in hr cumecs lagged by lag 8 hr lag 12 hr lag 16 hr lag 20 hr cumecs 5 hours (10) =- (8) hr UH (11) =
(1) (2) 4 hour (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) - (9) (10) * 4/5
0 0 0 0 0
1 6 6 6 4.8
2 36 36 36 28.8
3 66 66 66 52.8
4 91 0 91 91 72.8
5 106 6 112 0 112 89.6
6 93 36 129 6 123 98.4
7 79 66 145 36 109 87.2
8 68 91 0 159 66 93 74.4
9 58 106 6 170 91 79 63.2
10 49 93 36 178 112 66 52.8
11 41 79 66 186 129 57 45.6
12 34 68 91 0 193 145 48 38.4
13 27 58 106 6 197 159 38 30.4
14 23 49 93 36 201 170 31 24.8
15 17 41 79 66 203 178 25 20
16 13 34 68 91 0 206 186 20 16
17 9 27 58 106 6 206 193 13 10.4
18 6 23 49 93 36 207 197 10 8
19 3 17 41 79 66 206 201 5 4
20 1 13 34 68 91 0 207 203 4 3.2
21 0 9 27 58 106 6 206 206 1 0.8
22 0 6 23 49 93 36 207 206 0 0
 4 hr UH to 5 hr UH
250

200

150

100

50

4 hr UH ord in cumecs (2) 4hr UH lagged by 4 hour (3) lag 8 hr (4)

lag 12 hr (5) lag 16 hr (6) lag 20 hr (7)
0
0 S- curve ord in cumecs
5 (8) 10 S curve lagged by
15 5 hours (9) difference
20 (10) =- (8) - (9) 25
required ordinates of 5 hr UH (11) = (10) * 4/5
CONSTRUCTION OF A SHORTER PERIOD
HYDROGRAPH FROM A GIVEN
HYDROGRAPH -2.B
 Compute the S curve ordinates and derive the ordinates of a 3hr
UH
from the data given for a 6hr UH
6 hr UH 6 hr UH 6 hr UH 6 hr UH 6 hr UH 6 hr UH 6 hr UH S
6 hr UH ord ord ord ord ord ord ord S hydrograph 3 hr UH
time in ord in lagged lagged lagged lagged lagged lagged lagged hydrograp lagged by 3 differenc ord in
hr cumecs by 6 hr by 12 hr by 18 hr by 24 hr by 30 hr by 36 hr by 42 hr h ord hours e cumecs
0 0 0 0 0
3 9 9 0 9 18
6 20 0 20 9 11 22
9 35 9 44 20 24 48
12 49 20 0 69 44 25 50
15 43 35 9 87 69 18 36
18 35 49 20 0 104 87 17 34
21 28 43 35 9 115 104 11 22
24 22 35 49 20 0 126 115 11 22
27 17 28 43 35 9 132 126 6 12
30 12 22 35 49 20 0 138 132 6 12
33 9 17 28 43 35 9 141 138 3 6
36 6 12 22 35 49 20 0 144 141 3 6
39 3 9 17 28 43 35 9 144 144 0 0
42 0 6 12 22 35 49 20 0 144 144 0 0
 6 HR UH TO 3 HR UH

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

2 6 hr UH ord in cumecs 3 6 hr UH ord lagged by 6 hr 4 6 hr UH ord lagged by 12 hr

5 6 hr UH ord lagged by 18 hr 6 6 hr UH ord lagged by 24 hr 7 6 hr UH ord lagged by 30 hr
8 6 hr UH ord lagged by 36 hr 9 6 hr UH ord lagged by 42 hr 10 S hydrograph ord
11 S hydrograph lagged by 3 hours (12) = 10 - 11 differencer 13 = 12*6/3 3 hr UH ord in cumecs
FLOODS-METHODS OF DESIGN FLOOD
ESTIMATION –EMPIRICAL METHODS
RETURN PERIOD

• A return period, also known as a recurrence interval or repeat interval, is

an average time or an estimated average time between events such as
earthquakes, floods, landslides, or river discharge flows to occur.

• It is a statistical measurement typically based on historic data over an

extended period, and is used usually for risk analysis. Examples include
deciding whether a project should be allowed to go forward in a zone of a
certain risk or designing structures to withstand events with a certain
return period.
m is the rank of observed occurrences when arranged in descending order