Larry Brown

Tom Holme

Chapter 2
Atoms and Molecules

Jacqueline Bennett • SUNY Oneonta

[Link]/chemistry/brown
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Chapter Objectives

• Name at least three common polymers and give examples of

their uses
• Define the terms atom, molecule, isotope, ion, compound,
polymer, monomer, and functional group in your own words
• Describe the nuclear model for the atom and identify the
numbers of protons, electrons, and neutrons in a particular
isotope from its chemical symbol
• Calculate the atomic weight of an element from the masses
and abundances of its isotopes
• Explain the difference between a molecular formula and an
empirical formula

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Chapter Objectives (continued)

• Determine the number of atoms in a molecule from its

chemical formula
• Describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table
and explain the usefulness of the table
• Obtain a correct chemical formula from a line drawing of an
organic molecule
• Use standard chemical nomenclature to deduce the names of
simple inorganic compounds from their formulas or vice versa
• Describe different forms of polyethylene and how their
properties and applications are related to their molecular
structures

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Polymers

• Very large molecules made up of many smaller molecules

linked together
• Monomers
• Smaller molecules linked together in polymers
• Polymer backbone
• The long chain of bonded carbon atoms formed when
monomers link together to form polymers

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Polymers (continued)

• Polymers used in
everyday objects
• Polyethylene
• Poly(vinyl chloride),
PVC
• Polyacetylene
• Models showing how
atoms are arranged
in several polymers
• Each of these
polymers has distinct
properties

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Join In, 1

What element is most often found in a polymer backbone?

• Hydrogen
• Carbon
• Oxygen

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Join In, 1, Answer

• Carbon

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Join In, 2

Chemically, what is the difference between the polymer in plastic

pipes for plumbing and the polymer in plastic wrap?
• The plastic for plumbing has a metal backbone rather than
carbon
• There is one additional chlorine atom per carbon
• Plastic wrap polymer is more branched

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Join In, 2, Answer

• There is one additional chlorine atom per carbon

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Fundamental Concepts of the Atom

• Matter is composed of atoms

• Atoms have a nucleus, which contains protons and neutrons
• The nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of electrons
• Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged,
and neutrons are neutral

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Atoms Resembling a Solar System

• Solar system depiction of

atomic structure
• Emphasizes proton,
neutron, and electron
distribution; does not
accurately depict current
accepted model of
atomic structure

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Atoms Resembling a Solar System
(continued)

• Electrons are depicted as

clouds of negative charge
surrounding the nucleus
• The density of the small
white dots is related to
the probability of finding
an electron at a
particular location

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Atomic Number and Mass Number

• Atomic number: Number of protons in a particular atom

• Identifies an element
• Mass number: Sum of the number of protons and number of
neutrons in a nucleus
• 1 atomic mass unit or amu = 1.6605 x 10−24 g
• Protons and neutrons are nearly 2000 times more massive
than electrons
Particle mass (amu)
Proton 1.007
Neutron 1.009
Electron 0.00055

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Isotopes

• Atoms of an element that differ in the number of neutrons in

their nucleus
• Isotopic abundances
• Percentages describing the relative amounts of each
isotope

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Mass Spectrometer

• Mass spectrometers can measure the masses of atoms,

isotopes, and molecules
• Measures accurately the number of particles with a given
mass

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Figure 2.5: Mass Spectrum of
Elemental Carbon

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Atomic Symbols

• Information regarding atomic structure that is written in

scientific shorthand
A
Z X
• X is the atomic symbol for element
• Superscript A is the mass number
• Subscript Z is the atomic number

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Table 2.1: Atomic Symbols

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Atomic Masses

• Entry for carbon on the

periodic table
• Z=6
• Element symbol - C
• Atomic weight = 12.011 (99
atoms of carbon-12 and a
single atom of carbon-13)

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Atomic Masses (continued)

• Atomic weight of an element is the average of the atomic

masses of the naturally occurring isotopes of the element
• Carbon-12 = 12.000000 x 0.9893 = 11.87
• Carbon-13 = 13.003355 x 0.0107 = 0.139
• Weighted average mass = 11.87 + 0.139 = 12.01

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Example Problem 2.1

• The chlorine present in PVC has two stable isotopes. 35Cl with
a mass of 34.97 amu makes up 75.77% of the natural
chlorine found. The other isotope is 37Cl, whose mass is 36.95
amu. What is the atomic weight of chlorine?

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Join In, 3

Which part of an atom is much less massive than the other

parts?
• Electron
• Neutron
• Proton

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Join In, 3, Answer

• Electron

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Join In, 4

Why does it make sense that the atomic number is the number
of protons?
• Because it determines most of the mass
• Because it determines the number of electrons
• Because it determines the size of the nucleus

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Join In, 4, Answer

• Because it determines the number of electrons

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Join In, 5

Why do isotopes behave the same chemically?

• The number of neutrons has no effect on electrons
• They have the same mass
• Most elements have only one isotope

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Join In, 5, Answer

• The number of neutrons has no effect on electrons

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Join In, 6

Boron has two naturally occurring isotopes, 10B and 11B. Based
on its atomic mass, which is more abundant?
• 10B is more abundant
• 11B is more abundant
• The abundance is roughly even

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Join In, 6, Answer

• 11
B is more abundant

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Join In, 7

Which type of polyethylene has the most branching in the

carbon backbone?
• LDPE
• HDPE
• UHMWPE

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Join In, 7, Answer

• LDPE

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Ions

• Formed when the number of protons is not equal to the

number of electrons in an atom
• Ions with more protons than electrons are called cations
• Net positive charge
• Ions with more electrons than protons are called anions
• Net negative charge
• Monatomic ion: Derived from a single atom
• Polyatomic ion: Derived from a group of atoms with an overall
charge

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Table 2.3: Common Monatomic Ions

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Mathematical Description

• Coulombs’law states that the force between ions is

proportional to the product of the ion charges divided by
distance squared
q1q2
F= 4 o r 2

• Opposite charges attract and like charges repel

• q1 and q2 are charges; ε0 is a constant called the
permittivity of a vacuum; r is the distance between the
charges

• Electric charge is conserved 34

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Mathematical Description (continued)

• The coulombic force varies with the distance, r, between two

particles of opposite or like charges
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Ions and Their Properties

• An element and its ion have the same chemical symbol but
different properties
• Sodium metal atoms lose an electron to form sodium
cations
• Sodium metal reacts violently with water
• Chlorine gas molecules gain electrons to form chlorine
anions (chloride)
• Chlorine gas reacts violently with sodium metal
• Ionic compounds containing sodium cation and chlorine
anion dissolve in water without reacting

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Join In, 8

When news stories talk about sodium in the diet, to what form of
sodium are they referring?
• Sodium metal
• Sodium atoms
• Sodium ions

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Join In, 8, Answer

• Sodium ions

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Join In, 9

Which is true of a monatomic cation?

• It has more neutrons than protons
• It has more electrons than protons
• It has more protons than electrons

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Join In, 9, Answer

• It has more protons than electrons

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Join In, 10

How many atoms are there in Fe(NO3)3?

• 8
• 11
• 13
• 15

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Join In, 10, Answer

• 13

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Join In, 11

Which polyatomic ion has the most oxygen atoms?

• Bromite
• Hypobromite
• Bromate

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Join In, 11, Answer

• Bromate

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Chemical Formulas

• Describe a compound in terms of the elements the compound

contains
• Chemical compound: A pure substance made up of atoms of
two or more elements joined together by chemical bonds
• Types of chemical formulas
• Molecular formulas indicate the elements and number of
atoms of each element actually contained in a discrete unit
of a compound
• Empirical formulas tell the relative ratio between the
numbers of atoms of the different elements present in a
molecule

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Chemical Formulas (continued 1)

• The molecular formula for

ethylene is C2H4
• The empirical formula for
ethylene is CH2
• Polyethylene can be written
as –[CH2CH2]n–
• Dashes are added to
stress that these units are
attached end to end to
build up the long chain of
the polymer

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Writing Chemical Formulas

• Indicate the types of atoms in the substance by their atomic

symbols
• The number of atoms for each element is indicated by a
subscript to the right of the chemical symbol
• Groups of atoms can be designated using parentheses
• Subscripts outside these parentheses mean that all atoms
enclosed in the parentheses are multiplied by the value
indicated in the subscript
• Water molecules associated with certain compounds called
hydrates are indicated separately from the rest of the
compound

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Chemical Formulas (continued 2)

• Compounds have different properties than their constituent

atoms
• Ionic compounds contain cations and anions, usually
arranged in a lattice

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Example Problem 2.2

• One polymerization catalyst is diethylaluminum chloride,

Al(C2H5)2Cl
• How many of each type of atom are in a molecule of this
compound?

49
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Chemical Bonding

• Characteristics of chemical bonds

• All bonds are created by the exchange or sharing of
electrons
• The exchange or sharing of electrons results in lower
energy for the compound relative to the separate atoms

50
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Chemical Bonding (continued)

• Categories of chemical bonding

• Ionic: Bonding in compounds having collections of oppositely
charged ions that form an extended array called a lattice
• Metallic: Bonding in which the nuclei and some fraction of their
electrons comprise a positively charged “core” localized at
lattice points in an extended array, and other electrons move
more or less freely throughout the whole array
• Covalent: Bonding in which electrons are shared between pairs
of atoms rather than donated from one atom to another

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Ionic Bonding

• Ionic bonding occurs when

ions assemble into an
extended array called a
lattice and are held together
by the attraction between
oppositely charged ions

52
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Metallic Bonding

• Positively charged metal nuclei are arranged in a lattice

• Electrons move, more or less, freely throughout the whole
lattice
• Free movement allows metals to conduct electricity
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Covalent Bonding

• In covalent bonds, electrons are shared

in pairs
• One pair (single bond), two pairs (double
bond), or three pairs of electrons (triple
bond) can be shared between two nuclei
• Results in double bonds or triple
bonds
• Enables formation of long chains in
all polymers

54
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Join In, 12

What is the chemical formula of the molecule depicted?

• C5H6O2N
O
• C6H7O2N
OH
• C6H8O2N
• C6H11O2N N

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Join In, 12, Answer

• C6H8O2N

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Join In, 13

Which type of bonding occurs when there are distinct molecules

rather than extended systems?
• Covalent bonding
• Ionic bonding
• Metallic bonding

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Join In, 13, Answer

• Covalent bonding

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Join In, 14

For which type of chemical bond are the bonding electrons not
constrained to a localized region?
• Covalent
• Ionic
• Metallic

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Join In, 14, Answer

• Metallic

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The Periodic Table

• Based on the periodic law

• Shows that when arranged properly, the elements
display a regular and periodic variation in their
chemical properties
• Periods
• Horizontal rows on the periodic table
• Groups
• Vertical columns on the periodic table

61
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Periods and Groups

• Plot of density of
elements as a
function of atomic
number
• Colors represent a
period or row in the
periodic table

62
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Periods and Groups (continued 1)

• Darker shading indicates higher density

63
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Periods and Groups (continued 2)

• Graph of the number of

hydrogen atoms with which
an individual atom of
various elements will
combine
• The periodicity of this
chemical property is
evident from the cyclic
graph

64
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Periods and Groups (continued 3)

• Common names of specific groups

• Group 1 - Alkali metals
• Group 2 - Alkaline earth metals
• Group 17 - Halogens
• Group 18 - Noble gases/rare gases
• Table regions
• Groups 1 to 2 and 13 to18 are main group
elements/representative elements
• Groups 3 to 12 are transition metals
• Lanthanides and actinides are the elements that appear
below the rest of the table

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Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids

• Metals
• Are generally located toward the left and bottom of the
periodic table
• Are shiny, malleable, and ductile
• Conduct electricity and tend to form cations
• Nonmetals
• Occupy the upper right-hand portion of the periodic table
• Are not shiny, malleable, or ductile
• Are predominant or exclusive constituents of most of the
molecules that make up the human body
• Do not conduct electricity and tend to form anions

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Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
(continued)

• Metalloids or semimetals
• Have chemical properties intermediate of metals and nonmetals
• Are clustered along a diagonal path in the periodic table
between the metals and nonmetals

67
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Figure 2.14: Metals, Nonmetals, and
Metalloids

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Join In, 15

In the periodic table, what region is the home of the nonmetal

elements?
• Lower left
• Upper left
• Lower right
• Upper right

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Join In, 15, Answer

• Upper right

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Join In, 16

Based on the periodic table, what element is most likely to form

polymers like carbon?
• Boron
• Nitrogen
• Silicon

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Join In, 16, Answer

• Silicon

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Inorganic and Organic Chemistry
• Organic chemistry
• Study of the compounds of the element carbon
• Includes naturally occurring biological molecules and
nearly all synthetic polymers
• Inorganic chemistry
• Study of all other elements other than carbon and their
compounds

73
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Inorganic Chemistry—Main Groups and
Transition Metals
• Many inorganic compounds exist as relatively small molecules
whose atoms are joined together through covalent bonds
• Example
• Silicon tetrachloride SiCl4

• Other compounds of the main group elements form extended

ionic structures, such as that of NaCl

74
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Inorganic Chemistry—Main Groups and
Transition Metals (continued)
• Transition metal cations
have variable charge, and
hence, can form a variety of
compounds with different
chemical and physical
properties
• Transition metal chemistry is
more complicated than main
group metal chemistry

75
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Organic Chemistry

• Carbon atoms readily attach to one another to form chains

• These chains can grow quite long
• Because carbon compounds can become quite large, organic
compounds are described simply and unambiguously using
line structures, where carbons and hydrogens are not
explicitly shown
• Lines are used to depict bonds between atoms
• Symbols are written for any elements other than carbon and
hydrogen, as well as for any hydrogen atoms that are not
directly attached to carbon
• All other elements are shown

76
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Example Problem 2.3

• The structural formula for methyl methacrylate, the monomer

unit of Plexiglas®, is shown below
• Write the corresponding line structure for this compound

77
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Example Problem 2.4

• The line structure below represents 2,6-dimethylphenol. What

is its molecular formula?

78
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Functional Groups

• Arrangements of atoms that tend to display similar chemical

properties whenever they appear together
• Addition reaction
• The characteristic reaction of a carbon-carbon double
bond
• New atoms or groups of atoms are attached to a molecule
• Chemical formulas are often written to emphasize
functional groups
• Methanol, an alcohol, is often written CH3OH instead of
CH4O
• Hydrocarbons
• Molecules that contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms
• Addition of functional groups to hydrocarbons results in
more complex compounds 79
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Table 2.4: Some Common Functional
Groups

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Functional Groups

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Chemical Nomenclature

• Systematic process of assigning names to chemical

compounds
• Binary compounds contain only two elements
• Covalent binary compounds are named differently from
ionic binary compounds
• Recognizing a compound as ionic or covalent assists in
naming
• A metal and a nonmetal generally combine to form
ionic compounds
• Two nonmetals combine to form a covalent compound
• Presence of polyatomic ions often indicates ionic
bonding

82
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Naming Covalent Compounds

• The first element in the formula retains

its full name
• The second element is named by
replacing the ending from its name with
the suffix -ide
• Both elements are preceded by a
number-designating prefix except
that when there is only one atom of
the first element, it does not use the
prefix mono-

83
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Naming Covalent Compounds (continued)

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Example Problem 2.5

• What are the systematic names of the following compounds?

• N2O5
• PCl3
• P4O6

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Naming Ionic Compounds

• Rules of nomenclature dictate that the positively charged

species, the cation, be specified with enough information
about its charge to indicate the complete formula
• Cations with more than one charge (e.g., transition metals)
are named using Roman numerals in parentheses indicating
the charge, e.g., iron(II)
• Monatomic anions are named by replacing the ending of the
element name with the suffix -ide, e.g., bromide
• A polyatomic cation or anion is named using its common
name

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Table 2.5: Common Cations

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Table 2.6: Naming Ionic Compounds

• The charge and chemical formula for each polyatomic ion

should be memorized

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Naming Ionic Compounds (continued)

• Polyatomic ions containing oxygen and one another element

are oxyanions
• Base name of the oxyanion is provided by the element that
is not oxygen
• For two possible groupings, the one with more oxygen
atoms uses the suffix -ate, the one with fewer oxygen
atoms uses the suffix -ite
• For four groupings, the prefix per- is added to -ate for
the compound with the most oxygen atoms
• The prefix hypo- is added to -ite for the compound with
the least oxygen atoms

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Table 2.8: Oxyanions of Chlorine

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Example Problem 2.6

• Determine the names of the following ionic compounds

• Fe2O3
• Na2O
• Ca(NO3)2

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Polyethylene

• Most common synthetic polymer in the world

• In its various forms, polyethylene can be found in items
ranging from plastic grocery bags to children’s toys,
automobile gas tanks, and even bulletproof vests
• Polyethylene, —[CH2CH2]n—, is built from the monomer
ethylene, C2H4

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Polyethylene (continued 1)

• Polymerization reaction begins with the addition of a small

amount of an initiator molecule that easily breaks down
• This initiator molecule produces highly reactive fragments called
free radicals (“R·” where the “·” represents an unshared
electron)
• Attaches itself to a single ethylene molecule, opening its double
bond and leaving one end unbonded

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Polyethylene (continued 2)

• The ethylene free radical reacts with another ethylene

monomer, extending the polyethylene chain

• Polymerization continues until the free radical end of the

growing chain reacts with another free radical, which
terminates the growth of the chain

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Polyethylene (continued 3)

• Polyethylene
polymers can be
linear chains (high-
density polyethylene,
HDPE) or branched
chains (low-density
polyethylene, LDPE)
• Ultra-high molecular
weight polyethylene,
UHMWPE contains
extremely long linear
polyethylene chains

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Join In, 17

What is the name of Cl2O7?

• Chloride oxide
• Dichloride oxide
• Dichlorine oxide
• Dichlorine heptoxide
• Chlorine(VII) oxide

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Join In, 17, Answer

• Dichlorine heptoxide

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Join In, 18

What is the formula of vanadium (V) oxide?

• V5O
• V5O2
• V2O5

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Join In, 18, Answer

• V2O5

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