CHAPTER TWO
SENSATION AND
PERCEPTION
Gateways to Mind and Behavior
[Link] Meaning of
Sensation and Perception
What is Sensation?
What is Perception?
What is the difference between
them?
Chapter Overview
Before anything else,
psychological life begins with
the activity of knowing what is
happening around.
Sensation and perception are
the first important dimensions
of this intelligent life.
Cont`d
They are starting points for all
of your other psychological
processes.
[Link] of Sensation
It is the process whereby
stimulation of receptor cells (in
the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and
surface of the skin) sends nerve
impulses to the brain.
Cont`d
After reaching the brain, they
are registered as a touch, a
sound, a taste, and a splash of
color.
It is the process by which an
organism’s sense organs
respond to a stimulus.
SCHEMA
Nervous System
P. 43
Neurons
Types of Neurons
Sensory Motor Interneurons
Cont`d
The starting point of
sensations is a stimulus.
a) Stimulus: is a source of
physical energy that produces a
response in the sense organs.
Cont`d
It is form of energy that can
affect sensory organs.
It could be sound waves, light
waves, and heat pressure, etc.
b) Response: It is any reaction of
an organism to or in the presence
of a stimulus.
c) Transduction:
It is the process of converting
physical energy in to neural
energy or in to the nervous
system activity.
Sensations supply the data we use:
for learning and remembering,
for thinking and problem solving
for communicating, etc.
Without sensation and
perception, we would not form
thoughts or feelings.
Cont`d
Sensation is therefore, the
process that detects the
stimulus from one‘s body or
from the environment.
2.2.1. The Sensory Laws
There are certain sensory laws that
explain how sensation works.
1) Sensory threshold and
2) Sensory adaptation are the
two general laws of sensation.
1) Sensory Thresholds
Sensory threshold is the
minimum point of intensity a
stimulus can be detected.
There are two laws of sensory
threshold:
Cont`d
a) Absolute threshold
b) Difference threshold
(Just Noticeable Differences).
a) Absolute Thresholds
It is the minimum amount of
energy that a person can detect.
When the energy of a stimulus
fall below the absolute threshold,
we cannot detect its presence.
Cont`d
When the energy of the stimulus
risen above the absolute
threshold, we can detect the
stimulus.
Cont`d
E, g: how bright does a light is
so that we can see it.
How loud a sound is so that we
can hear it.
b) Difference Threshold /Just
Noticeable Difference
It is the smallest difference in
stimulation required to
discriminate one stimulus from
another.
Cont`d
Example, adding one candle into
60 candles and notice a
difference.
It is focused on changes in the
intensity of the stimulus.
B) Sensory Adaptation-
It is weakened magnitude of
sensation resulting from
prolonged presentation of the
same stimulus.
It is the tendency to ignore a
stimulus that occurs
continuously in the same way.
Cont`d
When the same stimulus is
continuously/repeatedly
presented, the sensation often
disappears or fades away.
Cont`d
In other word, if our senses are
exposed to the same kind of
stimuli, they stop to change the
sensory energy/electrical
impulse or they stop to react.
2.3. Perception
Perception is the process that
organizes sensations into
meaningful patterns.
It is the process whereby the
brain interprets sensations,
giving information order and
meaning.
Cont`d
As soon as the brain receives
sensations, it automatically
interprets or perceives them,
and without sensations of some
kind, perception could not occur.
Cont`d
It is the process of organizing
and interpreting information
received from the environment.
Characteristics of the Perceptual
Process
1) Selectivity of Perception
2) Form Perception
3) Depth Perception
4) Perceptual Constancy
5) Perceptual Illusion
[Link] of perception:
Paying attention
to stimulus by
i) Attention eliminating other
irrelevant
stimulus.
Cont`d
In order to perceive something,
we must attend or pay
attention to it (consciousness).
Ability to focus awareness on a
single stimulus to the exclusion
of other stimuli.
Factors Influencing Attention
i)External Factors a) Intensity
a) Intensity The more
b) Size intense the
c) Contrast stimulus the
d) Repetition more it will be
e) Movements attended.
Cont`d
b) Size- we tend to notice
unusually large or small things
than other.
c) Contrast- things/objects
contrasts with the environment
attract our attention easily.
d) Repetition
Stimulus that regularly
repeated can draw our
attention easily.
D) Novelty(Newness)
Novel or new objects create a
sharp contrast with the
environment and hence tend to
capture your attention.
Cont`d
Remember here why you are
given a special attention as a
guest.
Why first-born children get
more attention from parents
etc.
e) Movement
Moving objects tend to get
your attention more than non-
moving or stagnant objects.
Your eyes are involuntarily
attracted to movement the way
butterflies are attracted to light.
Cont`d
This is because moving objects
are instinctually felt dangerous
or threatening and you are
reflexively responding to them
to defend yourself.
ii) Internal /Personal/ Factors
Personal factors like:
motivation, attitude,
experience, memories,
emotion and interests are
affecting our attention.
2.3.2) Form Perception
It is the way sensations are
organized into a meaningful
shape and patterns.
From what we sense in our
environment, the brain
constructs a meaningful
situation.
Cont`d
Visual sensations, provide the
raw materials that are to be
organized into meaningful
patterns, shapes, forms, and
concepts or ideas or form
perception.
Organization in form Perception
When several objects are present
in the visual field, we tend to
perceive them as organized into
patterns or groupings.
Laws of Perceptual Organization
The laws of organization are
principles that describe how we
organize and construct pieces
of information into meaningful
wholes.
Cont`d
We perceive objects as well-
organized patterns rather than
separate components.
The whole is greater than the
sum of it’s parts.”
Based on the concept of
“grouping”.
Types of Laws of Perceptual
Organization
i) Law of Figure-ground
ii) Law of Continuity
iii) Law of Similarity
iv) Law of Proximity
v) Law of Closure
Discuss the following Questions
Consider a reptile named
chameleon.
1) Explain why this reptile
changes its colour accordingly to
the environment? it is found using
the idea of contours in form
perception.
Cont`d
2)Why are soldiers dressed in
green uniforms in almost all
countries?
3)What will happen if you write
with a charcoal on a
blackboard?
4)What will again happen if you
write with a pen or with white
ink on a white piece of paper?
5) Do you advice a black man to
dress a white cloth or a black
cloth? Why?
6) What is the implication of all
the above questions?
i) Law of Figure-Ground
It is the perceptual relationship
between the object of focus (the
figure) and the field (the
ground).
Cont`d
To perceive forms (meaningful
shapes or patterns), you need to
distinguish a figure (an object)
from its ground (or its
surrounding).
Cont`d
When we perceive a visual
stimulus, part of what we see is
the center of our attention
(figure) and the rest is
considered as ground.
.
Contours in Form Perception
You are able to separate forms
from the general ground only
because you can perceive
contours.
Cont`d
Contours are formed whenever
a marked difference occurs in
the brightness or colour of the
background.
ii) Law of Continuity
We tend to perceive lines or
patterns as being continuous even
if interrupted by another objects.
Cont`d
A straight line is seen as
continuing on a straight course
or, if it does change direction as
forming an angle rather than a
curve.
iii) Law of Similarity
Most people see one triangle
formed by the dots with its
apex at the top and another
triangle formed by the rings with
its apex at the bottom.
We organize by similarity
iv) Law of Proximity (Nearness)
The laws of proximity says that
items which are close together
in space or time tend to be
perceived as belonging together
or forming an organized group.
v) Law of Closure
Incomplete figures of familiar
objects will tend to be perceived
as wholes.
Our brain tends to perceive
complete by filling the gaps of
incomplete figures.
Cont`d
We perceive things by grouping
them as complete figure rather
than open and breaks.
The law of closure refers to
perceptual processes that
organize the perceived world by
filling in gaps in stimulation
Cont`d
The law of closure makes our
perceived world or form more
complete than the sensory
stimulation that is presented.
2.3.3) Depth Perception
Depth perception is the way
your eyes perceive the distance
between two objects.
It is the ability to judge how far
away people or objects are from
you.
Cont`d
Depth perception allows you to
accurately guess the distance
between you and something (or
someone) else.
E.g. To cross traffic road,
drivers decision to pass or not
to pass an other cars.
Navigating the World around You
Depth perception also helps
people perform simple, everyday
tasks, such as:
Safely crossing a busy street.
It helps professional baseball
players gauge the speed of the
ball hurtling toward them.
Cont`d
Taking the stairs without the
risk of misjudging them and
stumbling.
If your depth perception is
impaired, you may have some
trouble doing those kinds of
activities.
How to Test Depth Perception?
1)Hold your finger in front of the
depth perception eye test circle
on the screen.
2)Focus your gaze primarily on
the circle and you should see
two images of your finger on
either side of the circle.
Cont`d
Note: It might be slightly
transparent or blurry, but that’s to
be expected.
If you see the two fingers, it’s
a sign of strong depth
perception.
Cont`d
3) Switch your focus from the
dot to your finger.
This should result in the two
images merging into one while,
simultaneously, the circle
becomes two pieces.
.
Sign of Poor depth Perception
If your finger is larger on one
side than on the other.
If you see your finger better on
one side.
If you only see one reflection of
your finger, not two.
2.3.4. Perceptual Constancy
It is the ability to perceive
things as they are in contrast to
retina images changes.
Cont`d
It refers to ability to
perceive object’s shape, size,
color or brightness as being
constant or unchanging
even though the sensory
patterns they produce are
constantly shifting.
Cont`d
For example, the size of image
that falls on the retina changes
as a person walks away from us,
but we do not perceive the
person as shrinking in size.
[Link] Illusion
It is misperception of a
stimulus object, event, or
experience,
It is misconception(misleading)
stimulus.
E.g. Asphalt road during mid-
day in the sun.
The Nature of Illusions
Illusions are special perceptual
experiences in which information
arising from “real” external
stimuli leads to an
incorrect perception, or false
impression, of the object.
Cont`d
Illusion is a misrepresentation
of a real sensory stimulus; that
is, an interpretation that
contradicts objective “reality”.
It is the misapplication of a
visual cue.
Visual Perceptual Illusions
When an observer is confronted
with a visual assortment of
dots, the brain may group the
dots that “belong together.”
Cont`d
The fluctuations of figure and
ground may occur even without
conscious effort.
Seeing one aspect usually
excludes seeing the other.
CHAPTER THREE
LEARNING AND THEORIES
OF LEARNING