Heat Transfer
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC
CONCEPTS
• Heat: The form of energy that can be transferred from one
system to another as a result of temperature difference.
• Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat
transfer as a system undergoes a process from one
equilibrium state to another.
• Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the rates of
such energy transfers as well as variation of temperature.
• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-
temperature medium to the lower-temperature one.
• Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same
temperature called thermal equilibrium.
• Heat can be transferred in three different modes:
conduction, convection, radiation
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Application Areas of Heat Transfer
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Historical Background Caloric theory: Heat is a fluidlike
substance called the caloric that is a
massless, colorless, odorless, and
tasteless substance that can be
poured from one body into another
Kinetic theory: Treats molecules as
tiny balls that are in motion and thus
possess kinetic energy.
Heat is an energy associated with the
random motion of atoms and
molecules.
Careful experiments of the Englishman
James P. Joule published in 1843
convinced the skeptics that heat was
not a substance after all, and thus put
the caloric theory to rest.
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HEAT AND OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy can exist in numerous forms such as: thermal, mechanical,
kinetic, potential, electrical, magnetic, chemical, nuclear.
Their sum constitutes the total energy E (or e on a unit mass basis) of
a system.
The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the internal
energy of a system.
Internal energy: May be viewed as the sum of the kinetic and
potential energies of the molecules.
Sensible heat: The kinetic energy of the molecules due to
temperature difference.
Latent heat: The internal energy associated with the phase of a
system.
Chemical (bond) energy: The internal energy associated with the
atomic bonds in a molecule.
Nuclear energy: The internal energy associated with the bonds
within the nucleus of the atom itself.
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Internal Energy and Enthalpy
In the analysis of systems that
involve fluid flow, we
frequently encounter the
combination of properties u and
Pv.
The combination is defined as
enthalpy (h = u + Pv).
The term Pv represents the flow
energy of the fluid (also called
the flow work).
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Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids, and Solids
Specific heat: The energy required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of a substance by
one degree.
Two kinds of specific heats:
specific heat at constant volume cv
specific heat at constant pressure cp
The specific heats of a substance, in general,
depend on two independent properties such as
temperature and pressure.
At low pressures all real gases approach ideal
gas behavior, and therefore their specific heats
depend on temperature only.
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Incompressible substance: A substance
whose specific volume (or density) does
not change with temperature or pressure.
The constant-volume and constant-
pressure specific heats are identical for
incompressible substances.
The specific heats of incompressible
substances depend on temperature only.
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Energy Transfer
Energy can be transferred to or from a given
mass by two mechanisms: heat transfer and
work.
Heat transfer rate: The amount of heat
transferred per unit time.
Heat flux: The rate of heat transfer per unit
area normal to the direction of heat transfer.
Power: The work
done per unit time.
when is constant:
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THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy
principle) states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed during a
process; it can only change forms.
The energy balance for any system undergoing any
process in the rate form
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HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
Heat as the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to
another as a result of temperature difference.
A thermodynamic nalysis is concerned with the amount of heat transfer
as a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another.
The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such energy
transfers is the heat transfer.
The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-temperature
medium to the lower-temperature one, and heat transfer stops when the
two mediums reach the same temperature.
Heat can be transferred in three basic modes:
conduction
convection
radiation
All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature
difference.
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CONDUCTION
Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles.
In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the
collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their
random motion.
In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of
the molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by
free electrons.
The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is
proportional to the temperature difference across the
layer and the heat transfer area, but is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the layer.
Heat conduction
through a large plane
wall of thickness x
and area A.
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When x → 0 Fourier’s law of
heat conduction
Thermal conductivity, k: A measure of the ability
of a material to conduct heat.
Temperature gradient dT/dx: The slope of the
temperature curve on a T-x diagram.
Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing
temperature, and the temperature gradient becomes
negative when temperature decreases with
increasing x. The negative sign in the equation
ensures that heat transfer in the positive x direction
is a positive quantity.
In heat conduction
analysis, A represents The rate of heat conduction
the area normal to the through a solid is directly
direction of heat proportional to its thermal
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transfer. conductivity.
Thermal
Conductivity
Thermal conductivity:
The rate of heat transfer
through a unit thickness
of the material per unit
area per unit
temperature difference.
The thermal conductivity
of a material is a
measure of the ability of
the material to conduct
heat.
A high value for thermal
conductivity indicates A simple experimental setup
that the material is a to determine the thermal
good heat conductor, conductivity of a material.
and a low value indicates
that the material is a
poor heat conductor or
insulator.
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The range of
thermal
conductivity of
various
materials at
room
temperature.
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The thermal conductivities of gases such
as air vary by a factor of 104 from those of
pure metals such as copper.
Pure crystals and metals have the highest
thermal conductivities, and gases and
insulating materials the lowest.
The mechanisms of heat
conduction in different
phases of a substance.
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The variation of
the thermal
conductivity of
various solids,
liquids, and gases
with temperature.
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Thermal Diffusivity
cp Specific heat, J/kg · °C: Heat capacity
per unit mass
cp Heat capacity, J/m3·°C: Heat capacity
per unit volume
Thermal diffusivity, m2/s: Represents
how fast heat diffuses through a material
A material that has a high thermal
conductivity or a low heat capacity will
obviously have a large thermal diffusivity.
The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster
the propagation of heat into the medium.
A small value of thermal diffusivity means
that heat is mostly absorbed by the
material and a small amount of heat is
conducted further.
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CONVECTION
Convection: The mode of
energy transfer between a
solid surface and the
adjacent liquid or gas that is
in motion, and it involves
the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
The faster the fluid motion,
the greater the convection
heat transfer.
In the absence of any bulk
fluid motion, heat transfer
between a solid surface and
Heat transfer from a hot surface to air
the adjacent fluid is by pure
by convection.
conduction.
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Forced convection: If
the fluid is forced to flow
over the surface by
external means such as
a fan, pump, or the wind.
Natural (or free)
convection: If the fluid
motion is caused by
buoyancy forces that are
induced by density
The cooling of a boiled egg by
differences due to the
forced and natural convection.
variation of temperature
in the fluid.
Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also
considered to be convection because of the fluid motion induced during
the process, such as the rise of the vapor bubbles during boiling or the
fall of the liquid droplets during condensation.
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Newton’s law of cooling
h convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 · °C
As the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place
Ts the surface temperature
T the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.
The convection heat transfer
coefficient h is not a
property of the fluid.
It is an experimentally
determined parameter
whose value depends on all
the variables influencing
convection such as
- the surface geometry
- the nature of fluid motion
- the properties of the fluid
- the bulk fluid velocity
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RADIATION
• Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic
waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic
configurations of the atoms or molecules.
• Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does
not require the presence of an intervening medium.
• In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it
suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun
reaches the earth.
• In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is
the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature.
• All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.
• Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and
gases emit, absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees.
• However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon
for solids.
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Stefan–Boltzmann law
= 5.670 108 W/m2 · K4 Stefan–Boltzmann constant
Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate.
Radiation emitted
by real surfaces
Emissivity : A measure of how closely
a surface approximates a blackbody for
which = 1 of the surface. 0 1.
Blackbody radiation represents the maximum
amount of radiation that can be emitted from
23 a surface at a specified temperature.
Absorptivity : The fraction of the radiation energy incident on a
surface that is absorbed by the surface. 0 1
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it ( = 1).
Kirchhoff’s law: The emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface at
a given temperature and wavelength are equal.
The absorption of radiation incident on
an opaque surface of absorptivity .
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Net radiation heat transfer: When a surface is completely enclosed by a
The difference between the much larger (or black) surface at temperature
rates of radiation emitted by the Tsurr separated by a gas (such as air) that
surface and the radiation does not intervene with radiation, the net rate
absorbed. of radiation heat transfer between these
two surfaces is given by
The determination of the net
rate of heat transfer by radiation
between two surfaces is a
complicated matter since it
depends on
• the properties of the surfaces
• their orientation relative to
each other
• the interaction of the medium
between the surfaces with
radiation
Radiation is usually significant
relative to conduction or natural
convection, but negligible
relative to forced convection.
Radiation heat transfer between a surface
25 and the surfaces surrounding it.
When radiation and convection occur simultaneously between a
surface and a gas:
Combined heat transfer coefficient hcombined
Includes the effects of both convection and radiation
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SIMULTANEOUS HEAT
TRANSFER MECHANISMS
Heat transfer is only by conduction in opaque solids,
but by conduction and radiation in semitransparent
solids.
A solid may involve conduction and radiation but not
convection. A solid may involve convection and/or
radiation on its surfaces exposed to a fluid or other
surfaces.
Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly by
radiation in a still fluid (no bulk fluid motion) and by
convection and radiation in a flowing fluid.
In the absence of radiation, heat transfer through a
fluid is either by conduction or convection, depending
on the presence of any bulk fluid motion.
Convection = Conduction + Fluid motion
Although there are three mechanisms
Heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation. of heat transfer, a medium may involve
Most gases between two solid surfaces only two of them simultaneously.
do not interfere with radiation.
Liquids are usually strong absorbers of
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radiation.
Example 1: The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15-
m-thick fireclay brick having a thermal conductivity of 1.7 W/m K.
Measurements made during steady state operation reveal
temperatures of 1400 and 1150 K at the inner and outer surfaces,
respectively. What is the rate of heat loss through a wall that is 0.5 m
by 1.2 m on a side?
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Example 2: An uninsulated steam pipe passes through a room in which
the air and walls are at 25°C. The outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm,
and its surface temperature and emissivity are 200°C and 0.8,
respectively. What are the surface emissive power and irradiation? If the
coefficient associated with free convection heat transfer from the surface
to the air is 15 W/m2 K, what is the rate of heat loss from the
surface per unit length of pipe?
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